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LATIN  GRAMMAR 


BY 

CHARLES  E.' BENNETt  ;  :y. :  \ 

GoLDWiN  Smith  Professor  of  Latin  in  Corx^ll  "University 


Quicquid  praedpies,  esto  breuis,  ut  ci'to  dicta 
Percipiant  animi  dociles  teneantque  fideles : 
Omne  supervacuum  plena  de  pectore  manat. 

—  Horace,  Ars  Poetica. 


ALLYN    AND    BACON 


First  edition  printed  February,  1895. 

Reprinted  April  and  September,  1895;  April,  1896; 
July,  1897;  April,  1898;  May  and  September,  1899; 
April  and  November,  1900;  October,  1901;  March, 
1902;  April  and  November,  1903;  July,  1904;  April, 
1905;   April  and  November,  1906. 

Revised  edition  printed  March,  1908. 

Reprinted  April  and  October,  1909;  May,  1910; 
March,  191 1 ;  March,  191 2;  March,  191 3;  April, 1 914; 
March,  1915;   March,  1916;   March,  1917. 

Third  edition  printed  June,  19 18. 

Reprinted  November,  1919;    September,  1920. 


COPYRIGHT,    1895;    1908;   1918, 
BY  CHARLES  E.  BENNETT. 


Nottoooli  ^re2S 

J.  S.  Cuahing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


14^ 

PREFACE.  uSt 

The  present  work  is  a  revision  of  that  published  in  1908. 
No  radical  alterations  have  been  introduced,  although  a 
number  of  minor  changes  will  be  noted.  I  have  added  an 
Introduction  on  the  origin  and  development  of  the  Latin 
language,  which  it  is  hoped  will  prove  interesting  and  in- 
structive to  the  more  ambitious  pupil.  At  the  end  of  the 
bopk  will  be  found  an  Index  to  the  Sources  of  the  Illustra- 
tive Examples  cited  in  the  Syntax. 

C.  E.  B. 

Ithaca,  New  York, 

May  4,  1918.  • 

PREFACE   TO   THE   SECOND   EDITION. 

The  present  book  is  a  revision  of  my  Latin  Grammar 
originally  pubHshed  in  1895.  Wherever  greater  accuracy  or 
precision  of  statement  seemed  possible,  I  have  endeavored 
to  secure  this.  The  rules  for  syllable  division  have  been 
changed  and  made  to  conform  to  the  prevailing  practice 
of  the  Romans  themselves.  In  the  Perfect  Subjunctive 
Active,  the  endings  -Is,  -Imiis,  -Itis  are  now  marked  long. 
The  theory  of  vowel  length  before  the  suffixes  -gnus,  -gna, 
-gnum,  and  also  before  j,  has  been  discarded.  In  the 
Syntax  I  have  recognized  a  special  category  of  Ablative 
of  Association,  and  have  abandoned  the  original  doctrine 
as  to  the  force  of  tenses  in  the  Prohibitive. 

Apart  from  the  foregoing,  only  minor  and  unessential 
modifications  have  been  introduced.  In  its  main  lines  the 
work  remains  unchanged. 


Ithaca,  New  York, 
October  i6,  1907. 


dKflflQ.'^ 


FROM   THE   PREFACE   TO   THE   FIRST   EDITION. 

The  object  of  this  book  is  to  present  the  essential  facts 
of  Latin  grammar  in  a  direct  and  simple  manner,  and 
within  the  smallest  compass  consistent  with  scholarly 
standards.  While  intended  primarily  for  the  secondary 
school,  it  has  not  neglected  the  needs  of  the  college  stu- 
dent, and  aims  to  furnish  such  grammatical  information  as 
is  ordinarily  required  in  undergraduate  courses. 

The  experience  of  foreign  educators  in  recent  years  has 
tended  to  restrict  the  size  of  school-grammars  of  Latin, 
arid  has  demanded  an  incorporation  of  the  main  principles 
of  the  language  in  compact  manuals  of  250  pages.  Within 
the  past  decade,  several  grammars  of  this  scope  have  ap- 
peared abroad  which  have  amply  met  the  most  exacting 
demands. 

The  publication  in  this  country  of  a  grammar  of  similar 
plan  and  scope  seems  fully  justified  at  the  present  time,  as 
all  recent  editions  of  classic  texts  summarize  in  introduc- 
tions the  special  idioms  of  grammar  and  style  peculiar  to 
individual  authors.  This  makes  it  feasible  to  dispense 
with  the  enumeration  of  many  minutiae  of  usage  which 
would  otherwise  demand  consideration  in  a  student's 
grammar. 

In  the  chapter  on  Prosody,  I  have  designedly  omitted 
all  special  treatment  of  the  lyric  metres  of  Horace  and 
Catullus,  as  well  as  of  the  measures  of  the  comic  poets. 
Our  standard  editions  of  these  authors  all  give  such  thor- 
ough consideration  to  versification  that  repetition  in  a 
separate  place  seems  superfluous. 

Ithaca,  New  York, 
December  15,  1894. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Introduction  —  The  Latin  Language ix 

Part    I. 

SOUNDS,   ACCENT,   QUANTITY,   ETC. 


The  Alphabet i 

Classification  of  Sounds      ...  i 

Sounds  of  the  Letters    ....  3 

Syllables 4 

Quantity 4 


Accent 5 

Vowel  Changes    ......  6 

Consonant  Changes 7 

Peculiarities  of  Orthography  .     .  7 


Part    II. 


INFLECTIONS 
CHAPTER   \.  —  Declension. 
A.  Nouns. 

Gender  of  Nouns 10 

Number .  11 

Cases II 

The  Five  Declensions    ....  12 

First  Declension 13 


Second  Declension 14 

Third  Declension 18 

Fourth  Declension 28 

Fifth  Declension 29 

Defective  Nouns 30 

B.  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second 

Declensions 34 

Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declen- 
sion        36 

Comparison  of  Adjectives  .  -  .     .  40 

Formation    and    Comparison    of 

Adverbs 43 

Numerals 45 


C.  Pronouns. 
Personal  Pronouns    .     . 
Reflexive  Pronouns  .     . 
Possessive  Pronouns 
Demonstrative  Pronouns 
The  Intensive  Pronoun . 
The  Relative  Pronoun  . 
Interrogative  Pronouns 
Indefinite  Pronouns  . 
Pronominal  Adjectives  . 


48 
49 
49 
50 
51 
51 
52 
52 
53 


CHAPTER   II.  —  Conjugation. 

Verb  Stems 54 

The  Four  Conjugations ....  55 

Conjugation  of  Sum      ....  56 

First  Conjugation 58 

Second  Conjugation 62 

Third  Conjugation 66 

Fourth  Conjugation 70 

Verbs  in  -id  of  the  Third  Conju- 
gation    74 

Deponent  Verbs 76 


VI 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS. 


Semi-Deponents 78 

Periphrastic  Conjugation    ...  78 

Peculiarities  of  Conjugation    .     .  79 

Formation  of  the  Verb  Stems      .  80 


PAGE 

List  of  the  Most  Important  Verbs 

with  Principal  Parts    .     .     .  S^ 

Irregular  Verbs 95 

Defective  Verbs 102 

Impersonal  Verbs 104 


Part   III. 

PARTICLES. 

Adverbs 106 

Prepositions 107 

Interjections 108 


I.  Derivatives. 

Nouns 109 

Adjectives iii 

Verbs 113 


Part    IV. 

WORD  FORMATION. 

Adverbs 

II.  Compounds. 
Examples  of  Compounds    . 


114 


115 


Part    V. 


syntax. 


CHAPTER   I.  — Sentences. 

Classification  of  Sentences  .  .117 
Form  of  Interrogative  Sentences  117 
Subject  and  Predicate  .  .  .  .119 
Simple  and  Compound  Sentences    1 19 

CHAPTER   II.  —  Syntax  of  Nouns. 

Subject 120 

Predicate  Nouns 120 

Appositives      . 121 

The  Nominative 122 

The  Accusative 122 

The  Dative 129 

The  Genitive 134 

The  Ablative 142 

The  Locative 152 


CHAPTER   \\\.—  Syntax  of 

Adjectives. 
Agreement  of  Adjectives    .     .     -153 
Adjectives  used  Substantively      .    154 
Adjectives  with  the  Force  of  Ad- 
verbs     156 

Comparatives  and  Superlatives    .    156 
Other  Peculiarities 156 

CHAPTER   IV.  —  Syntax  of 
Pronouns. 

Personal  Pronouns 157 

Possessive  Pronouns      .     .     .     -157 

Reflexive  Pronouns 158 

Reciprocal  Pronouns     .     .     .     -159 
Demonstrative  Pronouns    •     .     -159 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Vlt 


PAGE 

Relative  Pronouns l6i 

Indefinite  Pronouns 163 

Pronominal  Adjectives  .     .     .     .164 

CHAPTER   ^.—  Syntax  of  Verbs, 

Agreement  of  Verbs 165 

Voices 167 

Tenses 167 

Of  the  Indicative 167 

Of  the  Subjunctive     ....    171 

Of  the  Infinitive 174 

Moods 176 

In  Independent  Sentences  .  .176 
Volitive  Subjunctive  .  .  .176 
Optative  Subjunctive  .  .  .178 
Potential  Subjunctive  .     .     .    179 

Imperative 180 

In  Dependent  Clauses  .  .  .181 
Clauses  of  Purpose  .  .  .181 
Clauses  of  Characteristic  .  182 
Clauses  of  Result    .     .     .     .184 

Causal  Clauses 185 

Temporal  Clauses  .     .     .     .187 
Introduced  by  Postquam, 

Ut,  Ubi,  etc 187 

C«z«-Clauses 188 

Introduced  by  Antequam 

and  Priusquam  .     .     .190 
Introduced  by  Dum,  Do- 
nee, Quoad     .     .     .     .191 
Substantive  Clauses     .     .     .192 
Developed  from  the  Voli- 
tive     192 

Developed  from  the  Opta- 
tive     194 

Of  Result 195 

After  non  dubito,  etc.   .     .195 

Introduced  by  Quod    .     .196 

Indirect  Questions  .     .     .    197 

Conditional  Sentences     .     .    198 

Use  of  6^,  Ntsi^  Sin    .     .     .    202 


PAGE 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Com- 
parison   203 

Concessive  Clauses      .     .     .  203 
Adversative     Clauses     with 
Quamvis,    Quamquam, 

etc 203 

Clauses  of  Wish  and  Proviso  205 
Relative  Clauses     ....  205 
Indirect  Discourse ....  206 
Moods    in    Indirect    Dis- 
course       206 

Tenses    in    Indirect    Dis- 
course      208 

Conditional    Sentences  in 

Indirect  Discourse    .     .  209 

Implied  Indirect  Discourse  .  211 

Subjunctive  by  Attraction    .  212 
Noun  and  Adjective  Forms  of  the 

Verb 212 

Infinitive 213 

,    Participles 217 

Gerund 220 

Supine 223 

CHAPTER   Wl.— Particles. 

Coordinate  Conjunctions    .     .     .    223 
Adverbs 227 

CHAPTER   Vll.— Word- Order 
and  Sentence- Structure. 

Word-Order    . 227 

Sentence-Structure 232 

CHAPTER   Will.  —  Hints  on 
Latin  Style. 

Nouns 233 

Adjectives 235 

Pronouns 236 

Verbs 236 

The  Cases 238 


Vlll 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Part    VI. 


PROSODY. 


Quantity  of  Vowels   and   Sylla- 
bles       240 

Verse-Structure 243 


The  Dactylic  Hexameter  .  .  .  245 
The  Dactylic  Pentameter  .  .  .  246 
Iambic  Measures 246 


SUPPLEMENTS    TO   THE   GRAMMAR 

III 


I.     Roman  Calendar    .     .     .     .247 
II.     Roman  Names 249 


Figures  of  Syntax  and  Rhet- 
oric      249 


Index  to  the  Illustrative  Examples  Cited  in  the  Syntax 251 

Index  to  the  Principal  Parts  of  Latin  Verbs 259 

General  Index 263 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE    LATIN   LANGUAGE. 

I.  The  Indo-European  Family  of  Languages.  —  Latin  belongs 
to  one  group  of  a  large  family  of  languages,  known  as  Indo- 
European)-  This  Indo-European  family  of  languages  embraces 
the  following  groups  : 

ASIATIC  MEMBERS  OF  THE  INDO-EUROPEAN  FAMILY. 

a.  The  Sanskrit^  spoken  in  ancient  India.  Of  this  there  were 
several  stages,  the  oldest  of  which  is  the  Vedic,  or  language  of 
the  Vedic  Hymns.  These  Hymns  are  the  oldest  literary  produc- 
tions known  to  us  among  all  the  branches  of  the  Indo-European 
family.  A  conservative  estimate  places  them  as  far  back  as 
1500  B.C.  Some  scholars  have  even  set  them  more  than  a  thou- 
sand years  earlier  than  this,  i.e.  anterior  to  2500  B.C. 

The  Sanskrit,  in  modified  form,  has  always  continued  to  be 
spoken  in  India,  and  is  represented  to-day  by  a  large  number  of 
dialects  descended  from  the  ancient  Sanskrit,  and  spoken  by 
millions  of  people. 

b.  The  Iranian^  spoken  in  ancient  Persia,  and  closely  related 
to  the  Sanskrit.  There  were  two  main  branches  of  the  Iranian 
group,  viz.  the  Old  Persian  and  the  Avestan.  The  Old  Persian 
was  the  official  language  of  the  court,  and  appears  in  a  number 
of  so-called  cuneiform  ^  inscriptions,  the  earliest  of  which  date 
from  the  time  of  Darius  I  (sixth  century  B.C.).  The  other 
branch  of  the  Iranian,  the  Avestan,^  is  the  language  of  the 
Avesta  or  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees,  the  followers  of  Zoro- 

1  Sometimes  also  called  Aryan  or  Indo- Germanic. 

2  Cuneiform  means  "  wedge-shaped."  The  name  applies  to  the  form  of  the 
strokes  of  which  the  characters  consist. 

8  The  name  Zend  is  often  given  to  this. 

ix 


INTRODUCTION. 


aster,  founder  of  the  religion  of  the  fire-worshippers.     Portions 
of  these  sacred  books  may  have  been  composed  as  early  as 

lOOO    B.C. 

Modern  Persian  is  a  living  representative  of  the  old  Iranian 
speech.  It  has  naturally  been  much  modified  by  time,  particu- 
larly through  the  introduction  of  many  words  from  the  Arabic. 

c.  The  Armenian,  spoken  in  Armenia,  the  district  near  the 
Black  Sea  and  Caucasus  Mountains.  This  is  closely  related  to 
the  Iranian,  and  was  formerly  classified  under  that  group.  It  is 
now  recognized  as  entitled  to  independent  rank.  The  earliest 
literary  productions  of  the  Armenian  language  date  from  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.  To  this  period 
belong  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  old  Armenian 
Chronicle.  The  Armenian  is  still  a  living  language,  though 
spoken  in  widely  separated  districts,  owing  to  the  scattered  loca- 
tions in  which  the  Armenians  are  found  to-day. 

d.  The  Tokharian.  This  language,  only  recently  discovered 
and  identified  as  Indo-European,  was  spoken  in  the  districts 
east  of  the  Caspian  Sea  (modern  Turkestan).  While  in  some 
respects  closely  related  to  the  three  Asiatic  branches  of  the 
Indo-European  family  already  considered,  in  others  it  shows 
close  relationship  to  the  European  members  of  the  family.  The 
literature  of  the  Tokharian,  so  far  as  it  has  been  brought  to 
light,  consists  mainly  of  translations  from  the  Sanskrit  sacred 
writings,  and  dates  from  the  seventh  century  of  our  era. 

EUROPEAN   MEMBERS   OF   THE  INDO-EUROPEAN 
FAMILY. 

e.  The  Greek.  The  Greeks  had  apparently  long  been  settled 
in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  as  far  back  as  1500  B.C.  Probably 
they  arrived  in  these  districts  much  earlier.  The  earliest  literary 
productions  are  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  of  Homer,  which  very 
likely  go  back  to  the  ninth  century  B.C.  From  the  sixth  century 
B.C.  on,  Greek  literature  is  continuous.  Modern  Greek,  when 
we  consider  its  distance -in  time  from  antiquity,  is  remarkably 
similar  to  the  classical  Greek  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  B.C. 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 


/.  The  Italic  Group.  The  Italic  Group  embraces  the 
Umbrian,  spoken  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Italian  peninsula 
(in  ancient  Umbria);  the  Latin,  spoken  in  the  central  part  (in 
Latium)  ;  the  Oscan,  spoken  in  the  southern  part  (in  Samnium, 
Campania,  Lucania,  etc.).  Besides  these,  there  were  a  number 
of  minor  dialects,  such  as  the  Marsian,  Volscian,  etc.  Of  all 
these  (barring  the  Latin),  there  are  no  remains  except  a  few 
scanty  inscriptions.  Latin  literature  begins  shortly  after 
250  B.C.  in  the  works  of  Livius  Andronicus,  Naevius,  and  Plau- 
tus,  although  a  few  brief  inscriptions  are  found  belonging  to  a 
much  earlier  period. 

g.  The  Celtic,  In  the  earliest  historical  times  of  which  we 
have  any  record,  the  Celts  occupied  extensive  portions  of  north- 
ern Italy,  as  well  as  certain  areas  in  central  Europe ;  but  after 
the  second  century  B.C.,  they  are  found  only  in  Gaul  and  the 
British  Isles.  Among  the  chief  languages  belonging  to  the 
Celtic  group  are  the  Gallic,  spoken  in  ancient  Gaul ;  the  Breton, 
still  spoken  in  the  modern  French  province  of  Brittany;  the 
Irish,  which  is  still  extensively  spoken  in  Ireland  among  the 
common  people ;  the  Welsh ;  and  the  Gaelic  of  the  Scotch 
Highlanders. 

h.  The  Teutonic.  The  Teutonic  group  is  very  extensive.  Its 
earliest  representative  is  the  Gothic,  preserved  for  us  in  the 
translation  of.  the  scriptures  by  the  Gothic  Bishop  Ulfilas  (about 
375  A.D.).  Other  languages  belonging  to  this  group  are  the  Old 
Norse,  once  spoken  in  Scandinavia,  and  from  which  are  de- 
scended the  modern  Icelandic,  Norwegian,  Swedish,  Danish ; 
German ;  Dutch  ;  Anglo-Saxon,  from  which  is  descended  the 
modern  English. 

/.  The  Balto-Slavic.  The  languages  of  this  group  belong  to 
eastern  Europe.  The  Baltic  division  of  the  group  embraces  the 
Lithuanian  and  Lettic,  spoken  to-day  by  the  people  living  on 
the  eastern  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  earliest  literary  pro- 
ductions of  these  languages  date  from  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Slavic  division  comprises  a  large  number  of  languages,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  the  Russian,  the  Bulgarian,  the 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 


Serbian,  the  Bohemian,  the  Polish.  All  of  these  were  late  in 
developing  a  literature,  the  earliest  to  do  so  being  the  Old  Bul- 
garian, in  which  we  find  a  translation  of  the  Bible  dating  from 
the  ninth  century. 

j.  The  Albanian,  spoken  in  Albania  and  parts  of  Greece, 
Italy,  and  Sicily.  This  is  most  nearly  related  to  the  Balto-Slavic 
group,  and  is  characterized  by  the  very  large  proportion  of  words 
borrowed  from  Latin,  Turkish,  Greek,  and  Slavic.  Its  literature 
does  not  begin  till  the  seventeenth  century. 

2.  Home  of  the  Indo-European  Family.  —  Despite  the  many 
outward  differences  of  the  various  languages  of  the  foregoing 
groups,  a  careful  examination  of  their  structure  and  vocabulary 
demonstrates  their  intimate  relationship  and  proves  overwhelm- 
ingly their  descent  from  a  common  parent.  'We  must  believe, 
therefore,  that  at  one  time  there  existed  a  homogeneous  clan  or 
tribe  of  people  speaking  a  language  from  which  all  the  above 
enumerated  languages  are  descended.  The  precise  location  of 
the  home  of  this  ancient  tribe  cannot  be  determined.  For  a 
long  time  it  was  assumed  that  it  was  in  central  Asia  north  of  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  but  this  view  has  long  been  rejected  as 
untenable.  It  arose  from  the  exaggerated  importance  attached 
for  a  long  while  to  Sanskrit.  The  great  antiquity  of  the  earhest 
literary  remains  of  the  Sanskrit  (the  Vedic  Hymns)  suggested 
that  the  inhabitants  of  India  were  geographically  close  to  the 
original  seat  of  the  Indo-European  Family.  Hence  the  home 
w^as  sought  in  the  elevated  plateau  to  the  north.  To-day  it  is 
thought  that  central  or  southeastern  Europe  is  much  more  likely 
to  have  been  the  cradle  of  the  Indo-European  parent-speech, 
though  anything  like  a  logical  demonstration  of  so  difficult  a 
problem  can  hardly  be  expected. 

As  to  the  size  and  extent  of  the  original  tribe  whence  the 
Indo-European  languages  have  sprung,  we  can  only  speculate. 
It  probably  was  not  large,  and  very  likely  formed  a  compact 
racial  and  linguistic  unit  for  centuries,  possibly  for  thousands 
of  years. 

The  time  at  which  Indo-European  unity  ceased  and  the  vari- 


INTRODUCTION.  Xlll 


ous  individual  languages  began  their  separate  existence,  is 
likewise  shrouded  in  obscurity.  When  we  Consider  that  the 
separate  existence  of  the  Sanskrit  may  antedate  2500  B.C.,  it 
may  well  be  believed  that  people  speaking  the  Indo-European 
parent-speech  belonged  to  a  period  as  far  back  as  5000  B.C., 
or  possibly  earlier. 

3.  Stages  in  the  Development  of  the  Latin  Language.  —  The 
earliest  remains  of  the  Latin  language  are  found  in  certain  very 
archaic  inscriptions.  The  oldest  of  these  belong  to  the  sixth 
and  seventh  centuries  B.C.  Roman  literature  does  not  begin 
till  several  centuries  later,  viz.  shortly  after  the  middle  of  the 
third  century  B.C.  We  may  recognize  the  following  clearly 
marked  periods  of  the  language  and  literature : 

a.  The  Preliterary  Period,  from  the  earliest  times  down  to 
240  B.C.,  when  Livius  Andronicus  brought  out  his  first  play. 
For  this  period  our  knowledge  of  Latin  depends  almost  exclu- 
sively upon  the  scanty  inscriptions  that  have  survived  from  this 
remote  time.     Few  of  these  are  of  any  length. 

b.  The  Archaic  Period,  from  Livius  Andronicus  (240  B.C.)  to 
Cicero  (8i  B.C.).  Even  in  this  age  the  language  had  already 
become  highly  developed  as  a  medium  of  expression.  In  the 
hands  of  certain  gifted  writers  it  had  even  become  a  vehicle  of 
power  and  beauty.  In  its  simplicity,  however,  it  naturally 
marks  a  contrast  with  the  more  finished  diction  of  later  days. 
To  this  period  belong : 

Livius  Andronicus,  about  275-204  B.C.  (Translation 
of  Homer's  Odyssey  ;  Tragedies). 

Plautus,  about  250-184  b.c,  (Comedies). 

Naevius,  about  270-199  b.c.  ("  Punic  War  ";  Come- 
dies). 

Ennius,  239-169  b.c.  (''  Annals  " ;  Tragedies). 

Terence,  about  190-159  B.C.  (Comedies). 

Lucilius,  180-103  B.C.  (Satires). 

Pacuvius,  220-about  130  B.C.  (Tragedies). 

Accius,  170-about  85  B.C.  (Tragedies). 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 


c.  The  Golden  Age,  from  Cicero  (8i  B.C.)  to  the  death  of  Au- 
gustus (14  A.D.).  'In  this  period  the  language,  especially  in  the 
hands  of  Cicero,  reaches  a  high  degree  of  stylistic  perfection. 
Its  vocabulary,  however,  has  not  yet  attained  its  greatest  full- 
ness and  range.  Traces  of  the  diction  of  the  Archaic  Period 
are  often  noticed,  especially  in  the  poets,  who  naturally  sought 
their  effects  by  reverting  to  the  speech  of  olden  times.  Litera- 
ture reached  its  culmination  in  this  epoch,  especially  in  the 
great  poets  of  the  Augustan  Age.  The  following  writers  belong 
here : 

Lucretius,  about   95-55   B.C.   (Poem    on    Epicurean 
Philosophy). 

Catullus,  87-about  54  B.C.  (Poet). 

Cicero,   106-43  ^-C-  (Orations;    Rhetorical  Works; 
Philosophical  Works ;  Letters). 

Caesar,  102-44  B.C.  (Commentaries  on  GaUic  and 
Civil  Wars). 

Sallust,  86-36  B.C.  (Historian). 

Nepos,  about  loo-about  30  B.C.  (Historian). 

Virgil,  70-19  B.C.  ("Aeneid";    "  Georgics  "  ;  **  Bu-    • 
colics  "). 

Horace,  65-8  b.c.  (Odes  ;  Satires  ;  Epistles). 

Tibullus,  about  54-19  B.C.  (Poet). 

Propertius,  about  50-about  15  B.C.  (Poet). 

Ovid,  43  B.C.-17  A.D.  ("  Metamorphoses  "  and  other 
poems). 

Livy,  59  B.C.-17  A.D.  (Historian). 

d.  The  Silver  Latinity,  from  the  death  of  Augustus  (14  a.d.) 
to  the  death  of  Marcus  AureHus  (180  a.d.).  This  period  is 
marked  by  a  certain  reaction  against  the  excessive  precision  of 
the  previous  age.  It  had  become  the  practice  to  pay  too  much 
attention  to  standardized  forms  of  expression,  and  to  leave  too 
little  play  to  the  individual  writer.  In  the  healthy  reaction 
against  this  formalism,  greater  freedom  of  expression  now  mani- 
fests itself.     We  note  also  the  introduction  of  idioms  from  the 


INTRODUCTION.  XV 


colloquial  language,  along  with  many  poetical  words  and  usages. 
The  following  authors  deserve  mention : 

Phaedrus,  flourished  about  40  a.d.  (Fables  in  Verse). 

Velleius  Paterculus,  flourished  about  30  a.d.  (His- 
torian). 

Lucan,  39-65  a.d.  (Poem  on  the  Civil  War). 

Seneca,  about  1-65  a.d.  (Tragedies ;  Philosophical 
Works). 

Pliny  the  Elder,  23-79  ^-^^  C'  Natural  History  "). 

Pliny  the  Younger,  62-about  115  a.d.  ("Letters"). 

Martial,  about  45 -about  104  a.d.  (Epigrams). 

Quintilian,  about  35-about  100  a.d.  (Treatise  on 
Oratory  and  Education). 

Tacitus,  about  55-about  118  a.d.  (Historian). 

Juvenal,  about  55-about  135  a.d.  (Satirist). 

Suetonius,  about  75-about  150  a.d.  (''Lives  of  the 
Twelve  Caesars  "). 

Minucius  Felix,  flourished  about  160  a.d.  (First 
Christian  Apologist). 

Apuleius,  125- about  200  B.C.  ("  Metamorphoses,"  or 
"  Golden  Ass  "). 

e.  The  Archaizing  Period.  This  period  is  characterized  by  a 
conscious  imitation  of  the  Archaic  Period  of  the  second  and 
first  centuries  B.C. ;  it  overlaps  the  preceding  period,  and  is 
of  importance  from  a  linguistic  rather  than  from  a  literary  point  of 
view.  Of  writers  who  manifest  the  archaizing  tendency  most 
conspicuously  may  be  mentioned  Fronto,  from  whose  hand  we 
have  a  collection  of  letters  addressed  to  the  Emperors  Antoninus 
Pius  and  Marcus  AureHus ;  also  Aulus  GelHus,  author  of  the 
''  Attic  Nights."  Both  of  these  writers  flourished  in  the  second 
half  of  the  second  century  a.d. 

/.  The  Period  of  the  Decline,  from  180  to  the  close  of  literary 
activity  in  the  sixth  century  a.d.  This  period  is  characterized 
by  rapid  and  radical  alterations  in  the  language.  The  features 
of  the  conversational  idiom  of  the  lower  strata  of  society  invade 


XVI  INTRODUCTION. 


the  literature,  while  in  the  remote  provinces,  such  as  Gaul, 
Spain,  Africa,  the  language  suffers  from  the  incorporation  of 
local  peculiarities.     Representative  writers  of  this  period  are  ; 

Tertullian,  about  i6o-about  240  a.d.  (Christian 
Writer). 

Cyprian,  about  200-258  a.d.  (Christian  Writer). 

Lactantius,  flourished  about  300  a.d.  (Defense  of 
Christianity). 

Ausonius,    about   310-about    395    a.d.  (Poet). 

Jerome,  340-420  a.d.  (Translator  of  the  Scriptures). 

Ambrose,  about  340-397  (Christian  Father). 

Augustine,  354-430  (Christian  Father  —  "City  of 
God  "). 

Prudentius,  flourished  400  a.d.  (Christian  Poet). 

Claudian,  flourished  400  a.d.  (Poet). 

Boethius,  about  480-524  a.d.  ("  Consolation  of  Phi- 
losophy "). 

4.  Subsequent  History  of  the  Latin  Language.  —  After  the 
sixth  century  a.d.  Latin  divides  into  two  entirely  different 
streams.  One  of  these  is  the  literary  language  maintained  in 
courts,  in  the  Church,  and  among  scholars.  This  was  no  longer 
the  language  of  people  in  general,  and  as  time  went  on,  became 
more  and  more  artificial.  The  other  stream  is  the  colloquial 
idiom  of  the  common  people,  which  developed  ultimately  in  the 
provinces  into  the  modern  so-called  Romance  idioms.  These 
are  the  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  French,  Provengal  (spoken 
in  Provence,  i.e.  southeastern  France),  the  Rhaeto- Romance 
(spoken  in  the  Canton  of  the  Grisons  in  Switzerland),  and  the 
Roumanian,  spoken  in  modern  Roumania  and  adjacent  districts. 
All  these  Romance  languages  bear  the  same  relation  to  the 
Latin  as  the  different  groups  of  the  Indo-European  family  of 
languages  bear  to  the  parent-speech. 


rART      1. 

« 

SOUNDS,    ACCENT,    QUANTITY. 

— • — 

THE   ALPHABET. 

1.  The  Latin  Alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English, 
except  that  the  Latin  has  no  w. 

1.  K  occurs  only  in  Kalendae  and  a  few  other  words ;  y  and  z  were 
introduced  from  the  Greek  about  50  B.C.,  and  occur  only  in  foreign 
words  —  chiefly  Greek. 

2.  With  the  Romans,  who  regularly  employed  only  capitals,  I  served 
both  as  vowel  and  consonant ;  so  also  V.  For  us,  however,  it  is  more 
convenient  to  distinguish  the  vowel  and  consonant  sounds,  and  to  write 
i  and  u  for  the  former,  j  and  v  for  the  latter.  Yet  some  scholars  prefer 
to  employ  i  and  u  in  the  function  of  consonants  as  well  as  vowels. 

CLASSIFICATION   OF   SOUNDS. 

2.  I.  The  Vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.  The  other  letters 
are  Consonants.     The  Diphthongs  are  ae,  oe,  ei,  au,  eu,  ui. 

2.  Consonants  are  further  subdivided  into  Mutes, 
Liquids,  Nasals,  and  Spirants. 

3.  The  Mutes  are  p,  t,  c,  k,  q;  b,  d,  g;  ph,  th,  ch.  Of 
these,  — 

d)  p,  t,  c,  k,  q  are  voiceless,^  i.e.  sounded  without  voice  or  vibra- 
tion of  the  vocal  cords. 

b)  b,  d,  g  are  voiced,^  i.e.  sounded  with  vibration  of  the  vocal 
cords. 

1  For  '  voiceless,' '  surd,' '  hard,'  or  '  tenuis  '  are  sometimes  used. 

2  For  '  voiced,'  '  sonant,' '  soft,'  or  '  media '  are  sometimes  used. 


SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY. 


t)  ph,'^tl?.f  ch  are  aspirates.  These  are  confined  almost  exclu- 
sively to  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  were  equivalent 
to  p  +  h,  t  +  h,  c  +  h,  i.e.  to  the  corresponding  voiceless 
mutes  with  a  following  breath,  as  in  Eng.  loop-hole,  hot-house^ 
block-house. 

4.   The  Mutes  admit  of  classification  also  as 


Labials, 

Dentals  (or  Linguals), 

Gutturals  (or  Palatals), 


p,  b,  ph. 

t,  d,  th. 

c,  k,  q,  s,  ch. 


5.  The  Liquids  are  l,  r.     These  sounds  were  voiced. 

6.  The  Nasals  are  m,  n.  These  were  voiced.  Besides 
its  ordinary  sound,  n,  when  followed  by  a  guttural  mute, 
also  had  another  sound,  —  that  of  ng  in  sing,  —  the  so- 
called  n  adulterinum  ;  as,  — 

anceps,  dotible,  pronounced  angceps. 

7.  The  Spirants  (sometimes  called  Fricatives)  are  f,  s,  h. 
These  were  voiceless. 

8.  The  Semivowels  are  j  and  v.     These  were  voiced. 

9.  Double  Consonants  are  x  and  z.  Of  these,  x  was 
equivalent  to  cs,  while  the  equivalence  of  z  is  uncertain. 

See  §  3.  3. 

10.  The  following  table  will  indicate  the  relations  of  the 
consonant  sounds :  — 


Mutes, 


Liquids, 
Nasals, 

Spirants, 

Semivowels, 


Voiceless. 

Voiced. 

Aspirates. 

P. 

b, 

pb, 

(Labials). 

t, 

d, 

th, 

(Dentals). 

c,  k,  q. 

m,  n. 

Ch, 

(Gutturals), 

f, 

(Labial). 

s, 

(Dental). 

H, 

(Guttural) . 

],  V. 


The  Double  Consonants,  x  and  z,  being  compound  sounds, 
do  not  admit  of  classification  in  the  above  table. 


SOUNDS   OF  THE  LETTERS. 


SOUNDS   OF  THE   LETTERS. 
3.    The  following  pronunciation  (often  called  Roman)  is 
substantially  that  employed  by  the  Romans  at  the  height 
of  their  civilization ;  i,e.  roughly,  from  50  B.C.  to  50  a.d. 

1.  Vowels. 

a  as  m  father ;  S  as  in  the  first  syllable  of  aM; 

e  as  in  t/iey ;  6  as  in  met ;  * 

1   as  in  viachine ;  1  as  in  pzn  ; 

o  as  in  note ;  6  as  in  oJyey,  melody  ; 

u  as  in  rude ;  ti  as  in  put ; 

y  like  French  ?/,  German  u. 

2.  Diphthongs. 

ae  like  ai  in  aisle ;  eu  with  its  two  elements,  S  and  li, 

oe  like  oi  in  oil;  pronounced  in  rapid  succession; 

ei    as  in  rein ;  ui  occurs  almost  exclusively  in  cui 

au  like  ow  in  how;  and  huic.     These  words  may  be 

pronounced   as   though   written 
kwee  and  wheek. 

3.  Consonants. 

b,  d,  f,  h,  k,  1,  m,  n,  p,  qu  are  pronounced  as  in  English,  except  that 

bs,  bt  are  pronounced  ps^  pt. 
c   is  always  pronounced  as  k. 

t    is  always  a  plain  t,  never  with  the  sound  of  sh  as  in  Eng.  oration. 
g   always  as  mget ;  when  ngu  precedes  a  vowel,  gu  has  the  sound  of 

gw,  as  in  anguis,  languidus. 
j     has  the  sound  of  y  as  in  yei. 

r    was  probably  slightly  trilled  with  the  tip  of  the  tongue, 
s    always  voiceless  as  in  sin  ;  in  suadeo,  suavis,  suesco,  and  in  com- 
pounds and  derivatives  of  these  words,  su  has  the  sound  oisw. 
V   like  w. 

X   always  like  ks ;  never  like  Eng.  gz  or  2. 
z    uncertain   in   sound ;  possibly  like  Eng.  zd,  possibly  like  2.     The 

latter  sound  is  recommended. 
The  aspirates  ph,  ch,  th  were  pronounced  very  nearly  like  our  stressed 

Eng.  ^,  c,  t  —  so  nearly  so,  that,  for  practical  purposes,  the  latter 

sounds  suffice. 
Doubled  letters,  like  11,  mm,  tt,  etc.,  should  be  so   pronounced  that 

both  members  of  the  combination  are  distinctly  articulated. 


SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY. 


SYLLABLES. 
4.   There  are  as  many  syllables  in  a  Latin  word  as  there 
are  separate  vowels  and  diphthongs. 
In  the  division  of  words  into  syllables,  — 

1.  A  single  consonant  is  joined  to  the  following  vowel ;  as,  vo-lat, 
ge-rit,  pe-rit,  a-dest. 

2.  Doubled  consonants,  like  tt,  ss,  etc.^  are  always  separated;  as, 
vit-ta,  mis-sus. 

3.  Other  combinations  of  two  or  more  consonants  are  regularly 
separated,  and  the  first  consonant  of  the  combination  is  joined  with  the 
preceding  vowel ;  as,  ma-gis-tri,  dig-nus,  mon-strum,  sis-te-re. 

4.  An  exception  to  Rule  3  occurs  when  the  two  consonants  consist 
of  a  mute  followed  by  1  or  r  (pi,  cl,  tl ;  pr,  cr,  tr,  etc.^.  In  such  cases 
both  consonants  are  regularly  joined  to  the  following  vowel ;  as,  a-gri, 
vo-Iu-cris,  pa-tris,  ma-tris.  Yet  if  the  1  or  r  introduces  the  second 
part  of  a  compound,  the  two  consonants  are  separated ;  as,  ab-rump6, 
ad-Iatus. 

5.  The  double  consonant  x  is  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel ;  as, 
ax-is,  tex-i. 

QUANTITY. 

5.   A.    Quantity  of  Vowels. 

A  vowel  is  long  or  short  according  to  the  length  of  time  required  for 
its  pronunciation  No  absolute  rule  can  be  given  for  determining  the 
quantity  of  Latin  vowels.  This  knowledge  must  be  gained,  in  large 
measure,  by  experience  ;  but  the  following  principles  are  of  aid :  — 

1.  A  vowel  is  long,i  — 

a)  before  nf  or  ns ;  as,  infans,  inferior,  consumo,  censeo, 
insum. 

b)  when  the  result  of  contraction ;  as,  nilum  for  nihilum. 

2.  A  vow^el  is  short,  — 

a)  before  nt,  nd ;  as,  amant,  amandus.  A  few  exceptions  occur 
in  compounds  whose  first  member  has  a  long  vowel ;  as,  non- 
dum  (n5n  dum). 

b)  before  another  vowel,  or  h ;  as,  mens,  traho.  Some  excep- 
tions occur,  chiefly  in  proper  names  derived  from  the  Greek  ; 
as,  Aeneas. 

1  In  this  book,  long  vowels  are  indicated  by  a  horizontal  line  above  them ;  as, 
a,  i,  6,  etc.  Vowels  not  thus  marked  are  short.  Occasionally  a  curve  is  set  above 
short  vowels;  as,  6,  ii. 


ACCENT.  5 


B.   Quantity  of  Syllables. 

Syllables  are  distinguished  as  lotig  or  short  according  to  the  length 
of  time  required  for  their  pronunciation. 

1 .  A  syllable  is  long,  i  — 

a)  if  it  contains  a  long  vowel ;  as,  mater,  regnum,  dius. 
^)  if  it  contains  a  diphthong;  as,  causae,  foedus. 
c)  if  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  x,  z,  or  any  two  con- 
sonants (except  a  mute  with  1  or  r)  ;  as,  axis,  gaza,  resto. 

2.  A  syllable  is  short,  if  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  a 
vowel  or  by  a  single  consonant ;  as,  mea,  amat. 

3.  Sometimes  a  syllable  varies  in  quantity,  viz.  when  its  vowel  is 
short  and  is  followed  by  a  mute  with  1  or  r,  i.e.  by  pi,  cl,  tl ;  pr,  cr, 
tr,  etc. ;  as,  agri,  volticris.^  Such  syllables  are  called  common.  In 
prose  they  were  regularly  short,  but  in  verse  they  might  be  treated  as 
long  at  the  option  of  the  poet. 

Note.  —  These  distinctions  of  long-  and  s/iort  a.re  not  arbitrary  and 
artificial,  but  are  purely  natural.  Thus,  a  syllable  containing  a  short 
vowel  followed  by  two  consonants,  as  ng,  is  long,  because  such  a  syl- 
lable requires  more  time  for  its  pronunciation;  while  a  syllable  con- 
taining a  short  vowel  followed  by  one  consonant  is  short,  because  it 
takes  less  time  to  pronounce  it.  In  case  of  the  common  syllables, 
the  mute  and  the  liquid  blend  so  easily  as  to  produce  a  combination 
which  takes  no  more  time  than  a  single  consonant.  Yet  by  sepa- 
rating the  two  elements  (as  ag-ri)  the  poets  were  able  to  use  such 
syllables  as  long. 

ACCENT. 

6.  I.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  first ;  as,  t^git, 
xuorem. 

2.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  penult 
(next  to  the  last)  if  that  is  a  long  syllable,  otherwise  upon  the  ante- 
penult (second  from  the  last)  ;  as,  amtvi,  amdntis,  miserum. 

3.  When  the  enclitics  -que,  -ne,  -ve,  -ce,  -met,  -dum  are  appended 
to  words,  if  the  syllable  preceding  the  enclitic  is  long  (either  originally 
or  as  a  result  of  adding  the  enclitic)  it  is  accented ;  as,  miseroque, 
hominlsque.  But  if  the  syllable  still  remains  short  after  the  enclitic 
has  been  added,  it  is  not  accented  unless  the  word  originally  took  the 
accent  on  the  antepenult.     Thus,  pdrtaque  ;  but  mfserdque. 

1  To  avoid  confusion,  the  quantity  of  syllables  is  not  indicated  by  any  sign. 

2  But  if  the  1  or  r  introduces  the  second  part  of  a  compound,  the  preceding 
syllable  is  always  long;  as,  abrumpo. 


SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY. 


4.  Sometimes  the  final  -e  of  -ne  and  -ce  disappears,  but  without 
affecting  the  accent ;  as,  tan  ton,  is  tic,  iliac. 

5.  In  utraque,  each^  and  plerSque,  most^  -que  is  not  properly  an 
.enclitic;    yet  these  words  accent  the  penult,  owing  to   the   influence 

of  their  other  cases, — utdrque,  utrumque,  pleriimque. 

VOWEL  CHANGES.i 
7.     I .   In  Compounds,  — 

a)  g  before  a  single  consonant  becomes  i ;  as,  — 

colligo         for  con-lego. 

b)  S.  before  a  single  consonant  becomes  i  ;  as,  — 

adigo  for  ad-ago. 

c)  a  before  two  consonants  becomes  S  ;  as,  — 

expers         for  ex-pars. 

d)  ae  becomes  1 ;  as,  — 

conquiro    for  con-quaero. 

e)  au  becomes  u,  sometimes  6  ;  as,  — 

concludd    for  con-claudo ; 
explode      for  ex-plaudo. 

2.    Contraction.    Concurrent  vowels  were  frequently  contracted  into 
one  long  vowel.     The  first  of  the  two  vowels  regularly  prevailed  ;  as,  — 

tres        for  tre-es ;  copia  for  co-opia ; 

malo      for  nia(v)elo;  cogo  for  co-ago; 

amasti  for  ama(v)isti ;  como  for  co-emo  ; 

debeo    for  de(h)abe6  ;  junior  for  ju(v)enior. 
nil          for  nihil; 

3.  Parasitic  Vowels.     In  the  environment  of  liquids  and  nasals  a 
parasitic  vowel  sometimes  develops  ;  as,  — 

vinculum  for  earlier  vinclum. 

So  periculum,  saeculum. 

4.  Syncope.     Sometimes  a  vowel  drops  out  by  syncope  ;  as,  —  , 

ardor  for  aridor  (compare  dridus)  ; 
valde  for  valide  (compare  validus). 

1  Only  the  simplest  and  most  obvious  of  these  are  here  treated. 


PECULIARITIES   OF  ORTHOGRAPHY.  7 

CONSONANT   CHANGES.i 

8.  I.    Rhotacism.    An  original  s  between  vowels  became  r;  as, — 

arbos,  Gen.  arboris  (for  arbosis)  ; 
genus,  Gen.  generis  (for  genesis)  ; 
dirimo  (for  dis-emo) . 

2.  dt,  tt,  ts  each  give  £  or  ss  ;  as, — 

pensiim  for  pend-tum ; 
versum  for  vert-tum ; 
miles      for  milet-s ; 
sessus    for  sedtus ; 
passus    for  pattus. 

3.  Final  consonants  were  often  omitted ;  as, — 

cor  for  cord ; 

lac  for  lact. 

A.  Assimilation  of  Consonants.    Consonants  are  often  assimilated 
to    .*   following   sound.      Thus :    accurro    (adc-)  ;    aggero    (adg-) 
assero   (ads-)  ;    allatus    (adl-)  ;    apporto  (adp-)  ;    attuli    (adt-) 
arrideo  (adr-)  ;  affero  (adf-)  ;  occurro  (obc-)  ;  supp5no  (subp-) 
offers  (obf-)  ;  corruo  (comr-)  ;  coUatus  (coml-)  ;  etc. 

5.   Partial   Assimilation.      Sometimes   the    assimilation    is   only 
partial.     Thus:  — 

a)  b  before  s  or  t  becomes  p ;  as,  — 

scrips!  (scrib-si),  scriptum  (scrib-tum). 

b)  g  before  s  or  t  becomes  c  ;  as,  — 
actus  (ag-tus). 

c)  m  before  a  dental  or  guttural  becomes  n  ;  as,  — 
eundem  (eum-dem)  ;      princeps  (prim-ceps). 

PECULIARITIES   OF   ORTHOGRAPHY; 

9.  Many  words  have  variable  orthography. 

I.    Sometimes  the  different  forms  belong  to  different  periods  of  the 
language.     Thus,  quom,  voltus,  volnus,  volt,  etc.^  were  the  prevail- 

1  Only  the  simplest  and  most  obvious  of  these  are  here  treated. 


8  SOUNDS,  ACCENT,  QUANTITY. 

ing  forms  almost  down  to  the  Augustan  age ;  after  that,  cum,  vultus, 
vulnus,  vult,  eta.  So  optumus,  maxumus,  lubet,  lubido,  etc.^ 
down  to  about  the  same  era ;  later,  optimus,  maximus,  libet,  libido, 
etc. 

2.  In  some  words  the  orthography  varies  at  one  and  the  same  period 
of  the  language.  Examples  are  exspecto,  expect 6  ;  exsisto,  exist5  ; 
epistula,  epistola ;  adulescens,  adolescens ;  paulus,  paullus ; 
cottidie,  cotidie ;  and,  particularly,  prepositional  compounds,  which 
often  made  a  concession  to  the  etymology  in  the  spelling ;  as,  — 

ad-gero       or  aggero ;  ad-sero         or  assero ; 

ad-licio      or  allicio ;  in-latus        or  illatus ; 

ad-rogans  or  arrogans ;  sub-moveo  or  summoveo ; 

and  many  others. 

3.  Compounds  of  jacio  were  usually  written  eicio,  deicio,  adicio, 
obicio,  etc.^  but  were  probably  pronounced  as  though  written  adjicio, 
objicio,  etc. 

4.  Adjectives  and  nouns  in  -quus,  -quum;  -vus,  -vum ;  -uus, 
-uum  preserved  the  earlier  forms  in  -quos,  -quom;  -vos,  -vom; 
-uos,  -uom,  down  through  the  Ciceronian  age;  as,  antiques,  anti- 
quom;  saevos ;  perpetuos  ;  equos ;  servos.  Similarly  verbs  in 
the  3d  plural  present  indicative  exhibit  the  terminations  -quont, 
-quontur;  -vont,  -vontur;  -uont,  -uontur,  for  the  same  period;  as, 
relinquont,  loquontur ;  vivont,  metuont. 

The  older  spelling,  while  generally  followed  in  editions  of  Plautus 
and  Terence,  has  not  yet  been  adopted  in  our  prose  texts. 


Part    II 


INFLECTIONS. 


10.  The  Parts  of  Speech  in  Latin  are  the  same  as 
in  English,  viz.  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  Verbs, 
Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections ; 
but  the  Latin  has  no  article. 

11.  Of  these  eight  parts  of  speech  the  first  four  are 
capable  of  Inflection,  i.e.  of  undergoing  change  of  form 
to  express  modifications  of  meaning.  In  case  of  Nouns, 
Adjectives,  and  Pronouns,  this  process  is  called  Declen- 
sion; in  case  of  verbs.  Conjugation. 


Chapter    I.  —  Declension. 

A.     NOUNS. 

.12.  A  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  person^  place,  thing,  or 
quality;  as,  Caesar,  Caesar;  'Rom.a,,  Rome ;  ^enns.,  feather ; 
virtus,  courage. 

1 .  Nouns  are  either  Proper  or  Common.  Proper  nouns  are  perma- 
nent names  of  persons  or  places ;  as,  Caesar,  R5ma.  Other  nouns 
are  Common ;  as,  penna,  virtus. 

2.  Nouns  are  also  distinguished  as  Concrete  or  Abstract. 

a)  Concrete  nouns  are  those  which  designate  individual  objects  ,• 
as,  m5ns,  mountain]  pea,  foot ;  dies,  day ;  mens,  mind. 
9 


lO  INFLECTIONS. 


Under  concrete  nouns  are  included,  also,  collective  nouns  ; 
as,  legio,  /eg-ion ;  comitatus,  retinue. 
b)  Abstract  nouns  designate  qualities ;  as,  constantia,  stead' 
fastness;  paupertas,  poverty. 

GENDER   OF   NOUNS. 

13.  There  are  three  Genders,  —  MascuUne,  Feminine, 
and  Neuter.  Gender  in  Latin  is  either  natural  or  gram- 
matical. 

Natural  Gender. 

14.  The  gender  of  nouns  is  natural  when  it  is  based 
upon  sex.  Natural  gender  is  confined  entirely  to  names 
of  persons  ;  and  these  are  — 

1 .  Masculine,  if  they  denote  males  ;  as,  — 

nauta,  sailor  ;  agricola,  farmer. 

2.  Feminine,  if  they  denote  females  ;  as,  — 

mater,  mother ;  regina,  queen. 

Grammatical  Gender. 

15.  Grammatical  gender  is  determined  not  by  sex,  but 
by  the  general  signification  of  the  word,  or  the  ending  of 
its  Nominative  Singular.  By  grammatical  gender,  nouns 
denoting  things  or  qualities  are  often  Masculine  or  Femi- 
nine, simply  by  virtue  of  their  signification  or  the  ending 
of  the  Nominative  Singular.  The  following  are  the  gen- 
eral principles  for  determining  grammatical  gender  :  — 

A,     Gender  determined  by  Signification. 

1.  Names  of  Rivers^  Winds ^  and  Months  are  Mascu- 
line ;  as,  — 

Sequana,  6'<?2>2<? ;  "Evltub,  east  wind ;  Ajpxilis,  April. 

2.  Names  of  Trees^  and  such  names  of  Towns  and 
Islands  as  end  in  -us,  are  Feminine ;  as,  — 

quercus,  oak ;  Corinthus,  Corinth ;  Rhodus,  /Rhodes. 


NUMBER.  —  CASES.  1 1 

Other  names  of  towns  and  islands  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings 
(see  B,  below)  ;  as,  — 

Delphi,  m. ;  Leuctra,  n. ;  Tibur,  n. ;  Carthago,  f. 

3.    Indeclinable  nouns,  also  infinitives  and  phrases,  are 

Neuter;  as, — 

nihil,  nothing',  nefas,  wrong;  amare,  to  love. 

Note.  —  Exceptions  to  the  above  principles  sometimes  occur ;  as,  AUia  (the 
river) ,  f. 

B.     Gender  deter ?ni7ted  by  Ending  of  Nominative  Singular, 

The  gender  of  other  nouns  is  determined  by  the  ending 
of  the  Nominative  Singular.^ 

Note  i.  —  Coinmoii  Gender.  Certain  nouns  are  sometimes  Mascu- 
line, sometimes  F'eminine.  Thus,  sacerdos  may  mean  €\\\\^x  priest  or 
priestess,  and  is  Masculine  or  Feminine  accordingly.  So  also  civis, 
citizen  ;  parens,  parent ;  etc.  The  gender  of  such  nouns  is  said  to  be 
common. 

.Note  2.  —  Names  of  animals  usually  have  grammatical  gender, 
according  to  the  ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular,  but  the  one  form 
may  designate  either  the  male  or  female;  as,  anser,  m., goose  or  gan- 
der.    So  vulpes,  {.,/ox;  aquila,  f.,  eagle. 

NUMBER. 

16.  The  Latin  has  two  Numbers,  —  the  Singular  and 
Plural.  The  Singular  denotes  one  object;,  the  Plural, 
more  than  one. 

CASES. 

17.  There  are  six  Cases  in  Latin :  — 

Nominative,   Case  of  Subject ; 

Genitive,         Objective  with  o/,  or  Possessive ; 

Dative,  ,  Objective  with  to  or  for ; 

Accusative,    Case  of  Direct  Object ; 

Vocative,        Case  of  Address  ; 

Ablative,         Objective  with  by,  from,  in,  with. 

1  The  great  majority  of  all  Latin  nouns  come  under  this  category.  The  prin- 
ciples for  determining  their  gender  are  given  under  the  separate  declensions. 


12  INFLECTIONS. 


1.  Locative.  Vestiges  of  another  case,  the  Locative  (denoting 
place  where),  occur  in  names  of  towns  and  in  a  few  other  words. 

2.  Oblique  Cases.  The  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Abla- 
tive are  called  Oblique  Cases. 

3.  Stem  and  Case-Endings.  The  different  cases  are  formed  by 
appending  certain  case-endings  to  a  fundamental  part  called  the 
Stem.i  Thus,  portam  (Accusative  Singular)  is  formed  by  adding 
the  case-ending  -m  to  the  stem  porta-.  But  in  most  cases  the  final 
vowel  of  the  stem  has  coalesced  so  closely  with  the  actual  case-ending 
that  the  latter  has  become  more  or  less  obscured.  The  apparent  case- 
ending  thus  resulting  is  called  a  termination. 


THE   FIVE   DECLENSIONS. 


18.  There  are  five  Declensions  in  Latin,  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  the  final  letter  of  the  Stem,  and  also 
by  the  Termination  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as  follows  :  — 


Declension. 

Final  Letter  of 

Stem. 

Gen. 

Termination. 

First 

a 

-ae 

Second 

6 

-i 

Third 

[  Some  consonant 

-is 

Fourth     • 

ii 

-us 

Fifth  S  -el 

Cases  alike  in  Form. 

19.  I.  The  Vocative  is  regularly  like  the  Nominative,  except  in 
the  singular  of  nouns  in  -us  of  the  Second  Declension. 

2.  The  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  always  alike. 

3.  In  Neuters  the  Accusative  and  Nominative  are  always  alike,  and 
in  the  Plural  end  in  -S. 

4.  In  the  Third,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  Declensions,  the  Accusative 
Plural  is  regularly  like  the  Nominative. 

1  The  Stem  is  often  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form  called  the  Boot. 
Thus,  the  stem  porta-  goes  back  to  the  root  per-,  por-.  Roots  are  usually  mono- 
syllabic. The  addition  made  to  a  root  to  form  a  stem  is  called  a  Suffix.  Thus 
in  porta-  the  suffix  is  -ta. 


FIRST  DECLENSION.  13 

FIRST   DECLENSION. 

a-Stems. 

20.  Pure  Latin  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  regu- 
larly end,  in  the  Nominative  Singular,  in  -S,  weakened 
from  -a,  and  are  of  the  Feminine  Gender.  They .  are 
declined  as  follows  :  — 

Porta,  gate ;  stem,  porta-. 


SINGULAR. 

Cases. 

Meanings. 

Terminations. 

Nom. 

porta 

a  gate  (as  subject) 

-a 

Gen. 

portae 

of  agate 

-ae 

Dat. 

portae 

to  ox  for  a  gate 

-ae 

Ace. 

portam 

a  gate  (as  object) 

-am 

Voc. 

porta 

0  gate ! 

-a 

Abl. 

porta 

withy  by,  from,  in  a  gate 

PLURAL. 

-a 

Nom. 

,  portae 

gates  (as  subject) 

-ae 

Gen. 

portarum 

of  gates 

-arum 

Dat. 

portis 

to  ox  for  gates 

-18 

Ace. 

portas 

gates  (as  object) 

-as 

Voc. 

portae 

0  gates  I 

-ae 

Abl. 

portis 

with,  by,  from,  in  gates 

-is 

1 .  The  Latin  has  no  article,  and  porta  may  mean  either  a  gate  of 
the  gate ;  and  in  the  Plural,  gates  or  the  gates. 

Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  First  Declension. 

21.    I.  Exceptions  IN  Gender.     Nouns  denoting  males  are  Mascu- 
line ;  as,  nauta,  sailor ;  aQiicola.,  far7ner  ;  also,  Hadria,  Adriatic  Sea. 

2.  Rare  Case-Endings,  — 

^)  An  old  form  of  the  Genitive  Singular  in  -as  is  preserved  in 
the  combination  pater  iB.vcLTl\^'&,  father  of  a  family  ',  also  in 
m§ter  familias,  filius  familias,  filia  familias.  But  the 
regular  form  of  the  Genitive  in  -ae  is  also  admissible  in  these 
expressions  ;  as,  pater  familiae. 

^)  In  poetry  a  Genitive  in  -ai  also  occurs  ;  as,  aulai. 


14  INFLECTIONS. 


c)  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -ae 
d)  A  Genitive  Plural  in  -um  instead  of  -arum  sometimes  occurs ; 
as,  Dardanidum  instead  of  Dardanidarum.     This  termina- 
tion -um  is  not  a  contraction  of  -arum,  but  represents  an 
entirely  diiferent  case-ending. 

e}  Instead  of  the  regular  ending  -is,  we  usually  find  -abus 
•  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  of  dea,  goddess,  and  filia^ 
daughter,  especially  when  it  is  important  to  distinguish  these 
nouns  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  deus,  god,  and  filius, 
son.  A  few  other  words  sometimes  have  the  same  peculiarity ; 
as,  libertabus  (from  liberta,  freedwojnan),  equabus 
(mares),  to  avoid  confusion  wiih  libertis  (from  libertus, 
freedman)  and  equis  (from  equus,  horse). 

Greek  Nouns. 

22.  These  end  in  -e  (Feminine) ;  -as  and  -es  (Masculine). 
In  the  Plural  they  are  declined  like  regular  Latin  nouns 
of  the  First  Declension.  In  the  Singular  they  are  declined 
as  follows :  — 

Archias,  Archias.     Epitome,  epitojtte.     Cometes,  comet.    ' 

Nom.  Archias  epitome  cometes 

Gen.    Archiae  epitomes  cometae 

Dat.     Archiae  epitomae  cometae 

Ace.     Archiam.  (or  -an)   epitomen  cometen 

Voc.     Archia  epitome  comete  (or  -S) 

Abl.     Archia  epitome  comete  (or  -a) 

1.  But  most  Greek  nouns  in  -e  become  regular  Latin  nouns  in  -a, 
and  are  declined  like  porta ;  as,  grammatica,  gra?n?nar ;  musica, 
music;  rhetorica,  rhetoric. 

2.  Some  other  peculiarities  occur,  especially  in  poetry. 

SECOND   DECLENSION. 
o-Stems. 

23.  Pure  Latin  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  end 
in  -us,  -er,  -ir,  Masculine ;  -um,  Neuter.  Originally  -us  in 
the  Nominative  of  the  Masculine  was  -os ;  and  -um  of  the 
Neuters  -om.     So  also  in  the  Accusative. 


SECOND   DECLENSION. 


IS 


Nouns  in-us  and  -um  are  declined  as  follows :  — 
Hortus,  garden ;  Bellum,  war ; 


stem,  hortS- 

SINGULAR. 

Termination. 

stem,  belli 

Termination, 

Norn. 

hortus 

-US 

bellum 

-um 

Gen. 

horti 

-i 

belli 

-i 

Dat. 

horto 

-6 

bello 

-6 

Ace. 

hortum 

-um 

bellum 

-um, 

Voc. 

horte 

-e 

bellum 

-um. 

Abl, 

horto 

-6 

Plural. 

bello 

-6 

JV077l. 

horti 

-1 

bella 

-a 

Gen. 

hortorum 

-orum 

bellorum 

-orum 

Dat. 

hortis 

-Is 

bellis 

-is 

Ace. 

hortos 

-OS 

bella 

-a 

Voc. 

horti 

-1 

bella 

-a 

Abl. 

hortis 

-Is 

bellis 

^is 

!Nouns  in  -er  and  -ir  are  declined  as  follows : 
Puer,  boy  ;  A-^er, yield;         Vir,  man  ; 


stem, 

puer6- 

stem,  agr6- 

SINGULAR. 

stem,  vir6- 

Termination. 

Nom. 

puer 

ager 

vir 

Wanting 

Gen. 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

-i 

Dat. 

puero 

agro 

viro 

-6 

Ace. 

puerum 

agrum 

virum 

-um. 

Voc. 

puer 

ager 

vir 

Wanting 

Abl. 

puero 

agro 

PLURAL. 

viro 

-6 

No7n. 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

-i 

Gen. 

puerorum 

agrSrum 

virorum 

-orum 

Dat. 

pueris 

agris 

viris 

-is 

Ace. 

pueros 

agros 

viros 

-OS 

Voc. 

pueri 

agri 

viri 

-i 

Abl. 

pueris 

agris 

viris 

-is 

I.    Note  that  in  v^^ords  of  the  type  of  puer  and  vir  the  final  vowel 
of  the  stem  has  disappeared  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular. 


i6 


INFLECTIONS. 


In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  ager,  the  stem  is  further 
modified  by  the  development  of  e  before  r. 

2.  The  following  nouns  in  -er  are  declined  like  puer  :  adulter, 
adulterer ;  gener,  son-in-law ;  Liber,  Bacchus  ;  socer,  father-in-law ; 
vesper,  evening-,  and  compounds  in  -fer  and -ger,  as  signifer,  armiger. 

Nouns  in  -vvLS,  -vum,  -quus. 
24.    Nouns   ending   in   the   Nominative   Singular   in  -vus,  -vum, 
-quus,  exhibited  two  types  of  inflection  in  the  classical  Latin,  —  an 
earlier  and  a  later,  —  as  follows  :  — 

Earlier  Inflection  {i7icludi7ig  Caesar  and  Cicero) . 

Servos,  m.,  slave.  Aevom,  n.,  age.  Equos,  m.,  horse. 

SINGULAR. 


Nom.  servos 

aevom 

equos 

Gen.    servi 

aevi 

equi 

Dat.    servo 

aev5 

equo 

Ace.     servom 

aevom 

equom 

Voc.     serve 

aevom 

eque 

Abl.      serv5 

aevo 

equ5 

Nom.  servus 
Gen.    servi 
Dat.     serv5 
Ace.     servum 
Voc.     serve 
Abl.     servo 


Later  Inflection  {after  Cicero). 

SINGULAR, 
aevum 
aevi 


aevo 
aevum 
aevum 
aevo 


equus 

equi 

equo 

equum 

eque 

equ5 


1 .  The  Plural  of  these  nouns  is  regular,  and  always  uniform. 

Peculiarities  of  Inflection  in  the  Second  Declension, 

25.  I.  Proper  names  in  -ius  regularly  form  the  Genitive  Singular 
in  -1  (instead  of  -ii),  and  the  Vocative  Singular  in  -i  (for  -ie)  ;  as, 
Vergili,  of  Virgil,  or  O  Virgil  (instead  of  Vergilii,  Vergilie) .  In 
such  words  the  accent  stands  upon  the  penult,  even  though  that  be 
short.  Nouns  in  -ajus,  -ejus  form  the  Gen.  in  -ai,  -ei,  as  Pompejus, 
Pompei. 

2.  Nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium,  until  after  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Augustus  (31  B.C.),  regularly  formed  the  Genitive  Singular  in  -i 
(instead  of  -ii)  ;  as,  — 


SECOND   DECLENSION.  17 

Nom.   ingenium  filius 

Gen.     ing^ni  fill 

These  Genitives  accent  the  penult,  even  when  it  is  short. 

3.  Filius  forms  the  Vocative  Singular  in   -i  (for  -ie)  ;   viz.  fili, 
O  son ! 

4.  Deus,  ^od,  lacks  the  Vocative  Singular.     The  Plural  is  inflected 
as  follows :  — 

ATom.  di  (del) 

Gen.  deorum  (deum) 

VaL  dis  (dels) 

Ace.  deos 

Voc.  di  (del) 

A^/.  dis  (dels) 

5.  The  Locative  Singular  ends  in  -i;  as,  Corinthi,  at  Corinth. 

6.  The  Genitive  Plural  has  -um,  instead  of -orum, — 

a)  in  words  denoting  money  and  measure ;    as,  talentum,  of 
talents;  modium,  0/ pecks  ;  sestertium.,  0/ sesterces. 

d)  in  duumvir,  triumvir,  decemvir ;  as,  duumvirum. 
c)  sometimes   in   other  words ;  as,   liberum,   0/  the  children ; 
socium,  of  the  allies. 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Second  Declension. 

26.     I.   The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Feminine  by  exception:  — 
«)  Names  of  towns,  islands,  trees  —  according  to  the  general 
rule  laid  down  in  §  15.  2 ;  also  some  names  of  countries;  as, 
Aegyptus,  Egypt. 

b)  Five  special  words,  — 

alvus,  belly ; 
C2Lrha.&\is,  fax  ; 
colus,  distaff; 
humus,  ground ; 
vannus,  winnowing  fan, 

C)  A  few  Greek  Feminines  ;  as,  — 
atomus,  atom; 
diphthongus,  diphthong. 

2.    The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Neuter :  — 
pelagus,  sea ; 
virus,  poiso7i ; 
vulgus,  crowd. 


l8  INFLECTIONS. 


Greek  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension. 

27.  These  end  in  -os,  -6s,  Masculine  or  Feminine;  and 
-on,  Neuter.  They  are  mainly  proper  names,  and  are  de- 
cUned  as  follows  :  — 


Barbitos,  m.  and  f., 

Androgeos,  m., 

Ilion,  n.. 

lyre. 

Androgeos . 

Troy. 

Norn,    barbitos 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Gen.     barbiti 

Androgeo,  -i 

Ilii 

Dat.     barbito 

Androgeo 

Ilio 

Ace.     barbiton 

Androgeo,  -on 

Ilion 

Voc.      barbite 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Abl.      barbito 

Androgeo 

Ilio 

1.  Nouns  in  -os  sometimes  form  the  Accusative  Singular  in  -um 
Instead  of  -on  ;  as,  Delum,  Delos. 

2.  The  Plural  of  Greek  nouns,  when  it  occurs,  is  usually  regular. 

3.  For  other  rare  forms  of  Greek  nouns  the  lexicon  may  be  con- 
sulted. 

THIRD   DECLENSION. 

28.  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension  end  in  -a,  -e,  -i,  -5, 
-y,  -c,  -1,  -n,  -r,  -s,  -t,  -x.  The  Third  Declension  includes 
several  distinct  classes  of  Stems,  — 

I.    Pure  Consonant-Stems. 
TI.    i-Stems. 

III.  Consonant-Stems  which  have  partially  adapted 
themselves  to  the  inflection  of  i-Stems. 

IV.  A  very  few  stems  ending  in  a  long  vowel  or  a 
diphthong. 

V.    Irregular  Nouns. 

I.    Consonant-Stems. 

29.  I.  In  these  the  stem  appears  in  its  unaltered  form 
in  all  the  oblique  cases,  so  that  the  actual  case-endings 
may  be  clearly  recognized. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


19 


2.    Consonant-Stems  fall  into  several  natural  subdivisions,  according 
as  the  stem  ends  in  a  Mute,  Liquid,  Nasal,  or  Spirant. 

A.   Mute-Stems. 

30.    Mute- Stems  may  end,  — 

1.  In  a  Labial  (p)  ;  as,  prinoep-s.    . 

2.  In  a  Guttural  (g  or  q)  ;   as,  remex  (remeg-s)  ;    dux  (duc-s). 

3.  In  a  Dental  (d  or  t)  ;  as,  lapis  (lapid-s)  ;  miles  (milet-s). 


I.   Stems  in  a  Labial  Mute  (p). 
31.    Prlnceps,  m.,  chief. 


SINGULAR. 

Termination. 

Nom. 

prlnceps 

-s 

Gen. 

principis 

-is 

Dat. 

principi 

-i 

Ace. 

prlncipem 

-em 

Voc. 

prlnceps 

-s 

Abl 

principe 

-e 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  prlncipes 

Gen.  principum 

Dat.  principibus 

Ace.  prlncipes 

Voc.  prlncipes 

Abl.  principibus 


-Ss 

-um 

-ibus 

-gs 

-§s 

-ibus 


2.    Stems  in  a  Guttural  Mute  (g,  c). 

32.    In  these  the  termination  -s  of  the  Nominative  Singular  unites 
with  the  guttural,  thus  producing  -x. 

Remex,  m.,  rower.  Dux,  c,  leader. 


singular. 

plural. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom.   remex 

remigSs 

dux 

ducSs 

Gen.     remigis 

remigum 

ducis 

ducum 

Dat.     remigi 

remigibus 

duel 

ducibus 

Ace.      remigem 

remiges 

ducem 

duces 

Voc.      remex 

remiges 

dux 

duces 

Abl.     remige 

remigibus 

duce 

ducibus 

20 


INFLECTIONS. 


3.   Stems  in  a  Dental  Mute  (d,  t). 
33.    In  these  the  final  d  or  t  of  the  stem  disappears  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Singular  before  the  ending  -s. 


Lapis,  m. 

,,  stone. 

Miles, 

m.,  soldier. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL.                         SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

lapis 

lapides 

miles 

milites 

Gen. 

lapidis 

lapidum 

militis 

mllitum 

Dat. 

lapidi 

lapidibus 

militi 

militibus 

Ace, 

lapidem 

lapides 

militem 

milites 

Voc. 

lapis 

lapides 

miles 

milites 

Abl. 

lapide 

lapidib 

us 

milite 

militibus 

B.   Liquid  Stems 

'. 

4.    These  end  in  • 

-1  or  -r. 

. 

Vigil,  m., 

Victor,  m., 

Aequor,  n., 

watchman. 

conqueror. 

sea. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

vigil 

victor 

aequor 

Gen. 

vigilis 

victoris 

aequoris 

Dat. 

vigili 

vict5ri 

aequori 

Ace. 

vigilem 

victorem 

aequor 

Voc. 

vigil 

victor 

aequor 

Abl. 

vigile 

victore 

PLURAL. 

aequore 

Nom. 

vigiles 

victores 

aequora 

Gen. 

vigilum 

victorum 

aequorum 

Dat. 

vigilibus 

victoribus 

aequoribus 

Ace. 

vigiles 

victores 

aequora 

Voc. 

vigiles 

victores 

aequora 

Abl. 

vigilibus 

victoribus 

aequoribus 

1.  Masculine  and  Feminine  stems  ending  in  a  liquid  form  the  Nomi- 
native and  Vocative  Singular  without  termination. 

2.  The  termination  is  also  lacking  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Singular  of  all  neuters  of  the  Third  Declension. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


21 


C.   Nasal  Steins. 
35.    These  end  in  -n/  which  often  disappears  in  the  Nom.  Sing. 


Leo,  m. 

,  lion. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom, 

leo 

leones 

Gen. 

leonis 

leonum 

Dat. 

leoni 

leonibus 

Ace. 

leonem 

leones 

Voc. 

leo 

leones 

Abl. 

leone 

leonibus 

Nomen,  n.,  name 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

nomen 

nomina 

nommis 

nominum 

nomini 

nominibus 

nomen 

nomina 

nomen 

nomina 

nomine 

nominibus 

D.    ^-Sterns. 
36.   Mos,  m.,  custom.  Genus,  n.,  race.        Honor,  m.,  honor. 


Nom. 

mos 

Gen. 

moris 

Dat. 

mori 

Ace. 

morem 

Voc. 

mos 

Abl. 

more 

Nom. 

mores 

Gen. 

morum 

Dat. 

moribus 

Ace. 

mores 

Voc. 

mores 

Abl. 

moribus 

SINGULAR. 

genus 

generis 

generi 

genus 

genus 

genere 

PLURAL. 

genera 

generum 

generibus 

genera 

genera 

generibus 


honor 

honoris 

honor! 

honorem 

honor 

honore 


honores 

honorum 

honoribus 

honores 

honores 

honoribus 


I.  Note  that  the  final  s  of  the  stem  becomes  r  (between  vowels)  in 
the  oblique  cases.  In  many  words  (honor,  color,  and  the  like)  the 
r  of  the  oblique  cases  has,  by  analogy,  crept  into  the  Nominative,  dis- 
placing the  earlier  s,  though  the  forms  honos,  colos,  etc.^  also  occur, 
particularly  in  early  Latin  and  in  poetry. 


1  There  is  only  one  stem  ending  in  -m,  —  hiems,  hiemis,  winter. 


22 


INFLECTIONS. 


II.    i-Stems. 

A.   Masculine  and  Feminine  \-Stems. 

37.  These  regularly  end  in  -is  in  the  Nominative  Singu- 
lar, and  always  have  -ium  in  the  Genitive  Plural.  Originally 
the  Accusative  Singular  ended  in  -im,  the  Ablative  Singular 
in  -1,  and  the  Accusative  Plural  in  -is ;  but  these  endings 
have  been  largely  displaced  by  -em,  -e,  and  -es,  the  end- 
ings of  Consonant-Stems. 

38.  Tussis,  f.,  cough '^  Ignis,  v^.^fire;  Hostis,  c,  enemy; 

stem,  tussi-.  stem,  igni-.  stem,  hosti-. 


SINGULAR. 

Termination. 

Nom. 

tussis 

Ignis 

hostis             -is 

Gen. 

tussis 

Ignis 

hostis             -is 

Dat. 

tussi 

Igni 

hosti              -i 

Ace. 

tussim 

Ignem 

hostem          -im,  -em 

Voc. 

tussis 

Ignis 

hostis             -is 

Abl. 

tussi 

Igni  or  e 

PLURAL. 

hoste              -i,  -e 

Nom. 

tussSs 

Ignes 

hostes            -es 

Gen. 

tussium 

Ignium 

hostium         -ium 

Dat. 

tussibus 

Ignibus 

hostibus        -ibus 

Ace. 

tussis  or  -es 

Ignis  or  -es 

hostis  or  -es  -is,  -es 

Voc. 

tusses 

Ignes 

hostes            -es 

Abl. 

tussibus 

Ignibus 

hostibus        -ibus 

I .   To  the  same  class  belong  — 

apis, . 

bee. 

Gratis,  hurdle. 

f  *securis,  axe. 

auris, 

ear. 

*f  ebris,  fever. 

sementis,  sowing. 

avis, 

bird. 

orbis,  circle. 

t  *sitis,  thirst. 

axis. 

axle. 

ovis,  sheep. 

torris,  brand. 

*buris. 

,  plough-beam. 

pelvis,  basin. 

f  *turris,  tower. 

clavis,  key. 

puppis,  stern. 

trudis,  pole. 

colUs 

,  hill. 

restis,  rope. 

vectis,  lever. 

and  many  others. 
Words  marked  with  a  star  regularly  have  Ace.  -im ;  those  marked 
with  a  t  regularly  have  Abl.  -i.     Of  the  others,  many  at  times  show 
-im  and  -i.     Town  and  river  names  in  -is  regularly  have  -im,  -i. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


23 


2.  Not  all  nouns  in  -is  are  i-Stems.  Some  are  genuine  consonant- 
stems,  and  have  the  regular  consonant  terminations  throughout,  nota- 
bly, canis,  dog',  yx^Qn\!&, youths 

3.  Some  genuine  i-Stems  have  become  disguised  in  the  Nominative 
Singular;  as,  pars,  part,  for  par(ti)s;  anas,  duck,  for  ana(ti)s ;  so 
also  mors,  death;  dos,  dowry ;  nox,  night;  sors,  lot;  mens,  ijtind^ 
ars,  art;  gens,  tribe;  and  some  others. 

B.   Neuter  \-Stems. 

39.  These  end  in  the  Nominative  Singular  in  -e,  -al,  and 
-ar.  They  always  have  -i  in  the  Ablative  Singular,  -ia  in 
the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  Plural,  and  -ium 
in  the  Genitive  Plural,  thus  holding  more  steadfastly  to  the 
i-character  than  do  Masculine  and  Feminine  i-Stems. 

Sedile,  j-^^/ ;     A.nim.a.1,  animat ;     Calcax,  spur  ; 
stem,  sedili-.        stem,  animali-.        stem,  calcari- 


SINGULAR. 

Termination, 

Noin. 

sedTle 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  wanting 

Gen. 

sedTlis 

animalis 

calcaris 

-is 

Dat. 

sedili 

animali 

calcari 

-i 

Ace. 

sedlle 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  wanting 

Voc. 

sedile 

animal 

calcar 

-e  or  wanting 

AM. 

sedili 

animali 

PLURAL. 

calcari 

-i 

Nam. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Gen. 

sedllium 

animalium 

calcarium 

-ium 

Dat. 

sedilibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

Ace. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Voc. 

sedilia 

animalia 

calcaria 

-ia 

Abl. 

sedilibus 

animalibus 

calcaribus 

-ibus 

1.  In  most  words  of  this  class  the  final  -i  of  the  stem  is  lost  in  the 
Nominative  Singular;  in  others  it  appears  as  -e. 

2.  Proper  names  in  -e  form  the  Ablative  Singular  in  -e ;  as,  Soracte, 
Mt.  Soracte ;  so  also  sometimes  mare,  sea. 

1  M§nsi8,  month,  originally  a  consonant  stem   (mens-),  has  in  the  Genitive 
Plural  both  mensium  and  mensum.    The  Accusative  Plural  is  menses. 


24 


INFLECTIONS. 


III.   Consonant-Stems  that  have  partially  adapted  themselves 
to  the  Inflection  of  f-Stems. 

40.  Many  Consonant-Stems  have  so  far  adapted  them- 
selves to  the  inflection  of  i-stems  as  to  take  -ium  in  the 
Genitive  Plural,  and  -is  in  the  Accusative  Plural.  Their 
true  character  as  Consonant-Stems,  however,  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  they  never  take  -im  in  the  Accusative  Singu- 
lar, or  -i  in  the  Ablative  Singular.  The  following  words 
are  examples  of  this  class  :  — 

Caedes,  i.,  slaughter ', 
stem,  caed-. 


Nom.  caedes 

Gen.  caedis 

Dat.  caedi 

Ace.  caedem 

Voc.  caedes 

Abl.  caede 


Nom.  caedes 

Gen.  caedium 

Dat.  caedibus 

Ace.  caedes,  -is 

Voc.  caedes 

Abl.  caedibus 

I.   The  following  classes  of  nouns  belong  here  :  — 

a)  Nouns   in  -es,   with    Genitive  in  -is  ;   as,    nubes,    aedes, 
clades,  etc. 

b)  Many  monosyllables  in  -s  or  -x  preceded  by  one  or  more 
consonants  ;  as,  urbs,  mons,  stirps,  lanx. 

c)  Most  nouns  in  -ns  and  -rs  ;  as,  aliens,  cohors. 

d)  Uter,  venter  ;  fur,  lis,  mas,  mus,  nix  ;  and  the  Plurals 
fauces,  penates,  Optimates,  Samnites,  Quirites. 

e)  Sometimes  nouns  in  -tas  with  Genitive  -tatis ;  as,  civitas, 
aetas.     Civitas  usually  has  civitatium. 


Arx,  f.,  citadel; 

Linter,  f.,  skif; 

stem,  arc-. 

stem,  lintr-. 

SINGULAR. 

arx 

linter 

arcis 

lintris 

ard 

lintri 

arcem 

Hntrem 

arx 

linter 

arce 

lintre 

PLURAL. 

arces 

lintrSs 

arcium 

lintrium 

arcibus 

lintribus 

arces,  -Is 

lintres,  -is 

arces 

lintres 

arcibus 

lintribus 

THIRD  DECLENSION. 


25 


IV.     stems  in  -i,  -u,  and  Diphthongs. 

41.        Vis,  f.,  Sus,  c.,  Bos,  c,  Juppiter,  m., 

force ;  swine ;  ox,  cow ;  Jupiter ; 

stem,  vi-.  stem,  su-.  stem,  bou-.         stem,  Jou-. 


A^om.  VIS 

Gen.  — 

Dai.  — 

Ace.  vim 

VOC.  VIS 

AM.  vi 


SINGULAR.      - 

SUS  bos 

suis  bovis 

sui  bovi 

suem  bovem 

sus  ,                bos 

sue  bove 


Juppiter 

Jo  vis 

Jovi 

Jovem 

Juppiter 

Jove 


PLURAL. 


Nom. 
Gen. 


vires 


Dai.     viribus 


Acc. 
Voc. 


vires 
vires 


Abl.      viribus 


sues 

suum 

suibus 

subus 

sues 

sues 

suibus 

subus 


boves 
(  bovum 
\  bourn 
j  bobus 
{  bubus 
boves 
boves 
bobus 
bubus 


(bo" 
Ibu 


1.  Notice  that  the  oblique  cases  of  sus  have  tt  in  the  root  syllable. 

2.  Grus  is  declined  like  sus,  except  that  the  Dative  and  Ablative 
Plural  are  always  gruibus. 

3.  Juppiter  is  for  Jou-pater,  and  therefore  contains  the  same  stem 
as  in  Jov-is,  Jov-i,  etc. 

Navis  was  originally  a  diphthong  stem  ending  in  au-,  but  it  has 
passed  over  to  the  i-stems  (§  37).     Its  ablative  often  ends  in  -i. 


V.     Irregular  Nouns. 
42.     Senex,  m.,  ^/^//z^;/.      Card,  {.,/ies/z. 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  senex  card 

Gen.  senis  carnis 

Dat.  seni  carni 

Acc.  senem  carnem 

Voc.  senex  caro 

Abl.  sene  came 


Os,  n.,  bone. 


OS 

ossis 
ossi 

OS 
OS 

osse 


26  INFLECTIONS. 


PLURAL. 

Norn. 

senes 

carnes 

ossa 

Gen. 

senum 

carnium 

ossium 

Dat. 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

Ace. 

senes 

carnes 

ossa 

Voc. 

senes 

carnes 

ossa 

AM. 

senibus 

carnibus 

ossibus 

1.  Iter,  itineris,  n.,  way,  is  inflected  regularly  throughout  from  the  stem 
itiner-. 

2.  Supellex,  supellectilis,  f.,  furniture,  is  confined  to  the  Singular.  The 
oblique  cases  are  formed  from  the  stem  supellectil-.  The  ablative  has  both 
-1  and  -e. 

3.  Jecur,  n.,  liver,  forms  its  oblique  cases  from  two  stems,  —  jecor-  and 
jecinor-.     Thus,  Gen,  jecoris  or  jecinoris, 

4.  Femur,  n.,  thigh,  usually  forms  its  oblique  cases  from  the  stem  femor-, 
but  sometimes  from  the  stem  femin-.    Thus,  Gen.  femoris  or  feminis. 

General  Principles  of  Gender  in  the  Third  Declension. 

43.  I .    Nouns  in  -6,  -or,  -6s,  -er,  -Ss  are  Masculine. 

2.  Nouns  in  -as,  -es,  -is,  -ys,  -x,  -s  (preceded  by  a  consonant)  ; 
-do,  -go  (Genitive  -inis)  ;  -io  (abstract  and  collective),  -us  (Genitive 
-utis  or  -udis)  are  Feminine. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  -a,  -e,  -i,  -y,  -c,  -1,  -n,  -t,  -ar,  -ur,  -tis  are 
Neuter. 

Chief  Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Third  Declension. 

44.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Masculines. 
I.'  Nouns  in  -6. 

a.    Feminine  :  car 6,  flesh, 

2.  Nouns  in  -or. 

a.  Feminine  :  arbor,  tree. 

b.  Neuter :  aequor,  sea ;  cor,  heart ;  marmor,  marble. 

3.  Nouns  in  -6s. 

a.  Feminine  :  d6s,  dowry. 

b.  Neuter :  6s  (6ris),  mouth, 

4.  Nouns  in  -er. 

a.   Feminine :  linter,  skiff. 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  27 

» 
b.    Neuter:   cadaver,  ^^tt/j^ ;  iter,  z£/^j;   tuber,  turuor ;  uber, 
udder.     Also  botanical  names  in  -er ;  as,  acer,  maple. 

5.   Nouns  in  -6s. 

a.   Feminine  :  sages,  crop. 

45.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Feminines. 

1.  Nouns  in  -as. 

a.  Masculine :  vas,  bondsman. 

b.  Neuter :  vas,  vessel. 

2.  Nouns  in  -es. 

a.    Masculine:  aries,  r^z«;  paries,  w^z//,*  ^es^foot. 

3.  Nouns  in  -is. 

a.    Masculine:   all  nouns  in  -nis  and  -guis ;   as,  amnis,  river; 

ignis,  fire;  panis,  bread;  sanguis,  blood;  unguis,  nail. 
Also  — 

axis,  axle.  piscis,  fish. 

collis,  hill.  postis,  post. 

fascis,  bundle.  pulvis,  dust. 

lapis,  stone.  orbis,  circle. 

mensis,  month.  sentis,  brier. 

4.  Nouns  in  -x. 

a.   Masculine:    apex,  ^^^/^;    codex,  tree-trunk;    grex,  flock; 
imbrex,  tile ;  poUex,  thumb ;  vertex,  summit ;  calix,  cup. 

5.  Nouns  in  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant. 

a.    Masculine  :  dSns,  tooth ;  f ons,  fountain ;  mons,  mountain ; 
pons,  bridge. 

6.  Nouns  in  -do. 

a.   Masculine  :  cardo,  hinge ;  ordo,  order. 

46.  Exceptions  to  the  Rule  for  Neuters. 

1.  Nouns  in  -1. 

a.    Masculine  :  sol,  sun ;  sal,  salt. 

2.  Nouns  in  -n. 

a.   Masculine :  pecten,  comb. 

3.  Nouns  in  -ur. 

a.   Masculine:  vultur, -z/w/Z/^rf 

4.  Nouns  in  -iis. 

a.   Masculine :  lepus,  hare. 


28 


INFLECTIONS. 


Greek  Nouns  of  the  Third  Declension. 

47.    The  following  are  the  chief  peculiarities  of  these :  — 

I.   The  ending  -S  in  the  Accusative  Singular;  as,  aetherS,  aether', 
Salamin^,  Salamis. 

in    the    Nominative    Plural;     as,    Phryggs, 


-gs 


-Ss    in    the    Accusative    Plural  ;     as,    PhrygSs, 


2.  The    ending 
Phrygians. 

3.  The    ending 
Phrygians. 

4.  Proper  names  in  -as  (Genitive  -antis)  have  -a  in  the  Vocative 
Singular;  as.  Atlas  (Atlantis),  Vocative  Atla,  Atlas. 

5.  Neuters  in  -ma  (Genitive  -matis)  have  -is  instead  of  -ibus  in 
the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural ;  as,  poematis,  ^^^;;/j-. 

6.  Orpheus,  and  other  proper  names  ending  in  -eus,  form  the 
Vocative  Singular  in  -eu  (Orpheu,  etc.').  But  in  prose  the  other 
cases  usually  follow  the  second  declension ;  as,  Orphei,  Orpheo,  etc. 

7.  Proper  names  in  -es,  like  Pericles,  form  the  Genitive  Singular 
sometimes  in  -is,  sometimes  in  -i,  as,  Periclis  or  Pericli. 

8.  Feminine  proper  names  in  -6  have  -us  in  the  Genitive,  but  -6 
in  the  other  oblique  cases  ;  as,  — 

Nom.   Dido  Ace.  Dido 

Gen.    DIdus  Voc.  Dido 

Dat.     Eiido  Abl.    Dido 

9.  The  regular  Latin  endings  often  occur  in  Greek  nouns. 


FOURTH   DECLENSION. 

iz-Stems. 

48.    Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension  end  in  -us  Mascu< 
line,  and  -u  Neuter.     They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Fructus, 

m.,fr7iit. 

Cornu,  m 

.,  horn. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

friictus 

fructus 

cornu 

cornua 

Gen. 

fructus 

fructuum 

corniis 

cornuum 

Dat. 

fructui 

fructibus 

cornu 

cornibus 

Ace. 

fructum 

fructus 

cornii 

cornua 

Voc. 

fructus 

fructus 

cornu 

cornua 

Abl. 

fructu 

frQctibus 

cornu 

cornibus 

FOURTH  DECLENSION.  —  FIFTH  DECLENSION.     29 

Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  Fourth  Declension. 

49.  I.  Nouns  in  -us,  particularly  in  early  Latin,  often  form  the 
Genitive  Singular  in  -I,  following  the  analogy  of  nouns  in  -us  of  the 
Second  Declension;  as,  senati,  ornati.  This  is  usually  the  case  in 
Plautus  and  Terence. 

2.  Nouns  in  -us  sometimes  have  -u  in  the  Dative  Singular,  instead 
of-ui;  as,  fructu  (for  fructui). 

3.  The  ending  -ubus,  instead  of  -ibus,  occurs  in  the  Dative  and 
Ablative  Plural  of  artus  (Plural),  li7nbs ;  tribus,  tribe;  and  in  dis- 
syllables in  -cus ;  as,  artubus,  tribubus,  arcubus,  lacubus.  But 
with  the  exception  of  tribus,  all  these  words  admit  the  forms  in  -ibus 
as  well  as  those  in  -ubus. 

4.  Domus,  house,  is  declined  according  to  the  Fourth  Declension, 
but  has  also  the  following  forms  of  the  Second :  — 

domi  (locative),  at  home ;     domum,  homewards,  to  one''s  hojne ; 
domo,  /ro7n  home ;  domos,  homewards,  to  their  (etc.)  homes. 

5.  The  only  Neuters  of  this  declension  in  common  use  are :  cornu, 
horn ;  genu,  knee  ;  and  veru,  spit. 

Exceptions  to  Gender  in  the  Fourth  Declension. 

50.  The  following  nouns  in  -us  are  Feminine :  acus,  needle ; 
domus,  house;  manus,  hand;  portions,  colonnade;  tribus,  tribe; 
Idus  (Plural),  Ides ;  also  names  of  trees  (§  15.  2). 

FIFTH    DECLENSION. 
e-Stems. 

51.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  end  in  -es,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  :  — 


Dies,  m.. 

,  day. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom.   dies 

dies 

Gen.     diei 

dierum 

Dat.     die! 

diebus 

Ace.      diem 

dies 

Voc.      dies 

dies 

Abl.      die 

diebus 

Res,  f., 

,  thing. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

res 

res 

r6i 

rerum 

rgi 

rebus 

rem 

res 

res 

res 

re 

rebus 

30  INFLECTIONS. 


Peculiarities  of  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension. 

52.  I.  The  ending  of  the  Genitive  and  Dative  Singular  is  -gl, 
instead  of  -61,  when  a  consonant  precedes  ;  as,  sp6i,  r6i,  j&d6i. 

2.  A  Genitive  ending  -i  (for  -6i)  is  found  in  plebi  (from  plebes  = 
plebs)  in  the  expressions  tribunus  plebi,  tribune  of  the  people,  and 
plgbi  scitum,  decree  of  the  people ;  sometimes  also  in  other  words. 

3.  A  Genitive  and  Dative  form  in  -e  sometimes  occurs  ;  as,  aciS. 

4.  With  the  exception  of  dies  and  rgs,  most  nouns  of  the  Fifth 
Declension  are  not  declined  in  the  Plural.  But  acies,  series,  species, 
sp6s,  and  a  few  others  are  used  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative 
Plural. 

Gender  in  the  Fifth  Declension. 

53.  Nouns  of  the  Fifth  Declension  are  regularly  Feminine,  except 
dies,  day,  and  meridies,  mz'd-Jay.  But  dies  is  sometimes  Feminine 
in  the  Singular,  particularly  when  it  means  an  appointed  day, 

DEFECTIVE   NOUNS. 

54.  Here  belong  — 

1.  Nouns  used  in  the  Singular  only. 

2.  Nouns  used  in  the  Plural  only. 

3.  Nouns  used  only  in  certain  cases. 

4.  Indeclinable  Nouns. 

Nouns  used  in  the  Singular  only. 

55.  Many  nouns,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification, 
are  regularly  used  in  the  Singular  only.     Thus  :  — 

1 .  Proper  names  ;  as,  Cicero,  Cicero ;  Italia,  Italy. 

2.  Nouns  denoting  material;  as,  aes,  copper;  lac,  milk. 

3.  Abstract  nouns;  as,  ignorantia,  ignorance;  bonitas,  good- 
ness. 

4.  But  the  above  classes  of  words  are  sometimes  used  in  the  Plural. 
Thus :  — 

a)  Proper  names,  —  to  denote  different  members  of  a  family,  or 
specimens  of  a  type ;  as,  Cicerones,  the  Ciceros ;  Catones, 
men  like  Cato. 


DEFECTIVE  NOUNS.  3 1 

U)  Names  of  materials,  —  to  denote  objects  made  of  the  mate- 
rial, or  different  kinds  of  the  substance ;  as,  aera,  bronzes 
{i.e.  bronze  figures)  ;  ligna,  woods. 

c)  Abstract  nouns,  —  to  denote  instances  of  the  quality ;  as, 
iguorantiae,  cases  of  ignorance. 

Nouns  used  in  the  Plural  only. 

56.  Here  belong  — 

I.  Many  geographical  names;  as,  Thebae,  Thebes;  Leuctra, 
Letictra ;  Pompeji,  Po77ipeii. 

1.  Many  names  of  festivals  ;  as,  Megalesia,  the  Megalesian  festival. 
3.   Many  special  words,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most  impor- 
tant :  — 

angustiae,  narrow  pass.  manes,  spirits  of  the  dead. 

arma,  weapons.  moenia,  city  walls. 

deliciae,  delight.  minae,  threats. 

divitiae,  riches.  nuptiae,  marriage. 

Idus,  Ides.  poster!,  descendants. 

indutiae,  trtice.  reliquiae,  remainder. 

insidiae,  ambush.  tenebrae,  darkness. 

majores,  aiicestors.  verbera,  blows. 

Also  in  classical  prose  regularly  — 

cervices,  neck.  nares,  nose. 

fides,  lyre.  viscera,  viscera. 

Nouns  used  only  in  Certain  Cases. 

57.  I.  Used  in  only  One  Case.  Many  nouns  of  the  Fourth 
Declension  are  found  only  in  the  Ablative  Singular;  as,  jussu,  by  the 
order ;  injussu,  without  the  order ;  natu,  by  birth. 

2.  Used  in  Two  Cases. 

a.  Fors  (chance),  Noni.  Sing. ;  forte,  Abl.  Sing. 

b.  Spontis  {free-will),  Gen.  Sing. ;  sponte,  Abl.  Sing. 

3.  Used  in  Three  Cases.  Nemo,  no  one  (Nom.),  has  also  the 
Dat.  nemini  and  the  Ace.  neminem.  The  Gen.  and  Abl.  are  supplied 
by  the  corresponding  cases  of  nuUus;  viz.  nullius  and  nullo. 


32  INFLECTIONS. 


4.  Impetus  has  the  Nom.,  Ace,  and  Abl.  Sing.,  and  the  Nom. 
find  Ace.  Plu. ;  viz.  impetus,  impetum,  impetu,  impetus. 

5.  a.   Preci,  precem,  prece,  lacks  the  Nom.  and  Gen.  Sing. 
b.   Vicis,  vicem,  vice,  lacks  the  Nom.  and  Dat.  Sing. 

6.  Opis,  dapis,  and  frugis,  —  all  lack  the  Nom.  Sing. 

7.  Many  monosyllables  of  the  Third  Declension  lack  the  Gen.  Plu. ; 
as,  cor,  lux,  sol;  aes,  os  (5ris),  rus,  sal,  tus. 

Indeclinable  Nouns. 

58.  Here  belong  — 

fas,  n.,  right.  nefas,  n.,  impiety, 

instar,  n.,  likeness.  nihil,  n.,  nothing, 

mane,  n.,  morning.  secus,  n.,  sex. 

I.  With  the  exception  of  mane  (which  may  serve  also  as  Ablative, 
in  the  morning^ ^  the  nouns  in  this  list  are  simply  Neuters  confined  in 
use  to  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Singular. 

Heteroclites. 

59.  These  are  nouns  whose  forms  are  partly  of  one 
declension,  and  partly  of  another.     Thus  :  — 

1.  Several  nouns  have  the  entire  Singular  of  one  declension,  while 
the  Plural  is  of  another ;  as,  — 

vas,  vasis  (vessel)  ;  Plu.,  vasa,  vasorum,  vasis,  etc. 

jugerum,  jugeri  (acre)  ;      Plu.,  jugera,  jugerum,  jugeribus,  etc. 

2.  Several  nouns,  while  belonging  in  the  main  to  one  declension, 
have  certain  special  forms  belonging  to  another.     Thus  :  — 

a)  Many,  nouns  of  the  First  Declension  ending  in  -ia  take  also 
a  Nom.  and  Ace.  of  the  Fitth ;  as,  materies^  materiem, 
material,  as  well  as  materia,  materianir    ' 

b)  Fames,  hunger,  regularly  of  the  Third  Declension,  has  the 
Abl.  fame  of  the  Fifth. 

c)  Requies,  requietis,  rest,  regularly  of  the  Third  Declension, 
takes  an  Ace.  of  the  Fifth,  requiem,  in  addition  to  requi- 
etem. 

</)  Besides  plebs,  plebis,  com?no?i  people,  of  the  Third  Declen- 
sion, we  find  plebes,  pleb^i  (also  plebi,  see  §  52.  2),  of  the 
Fifth. 


HETEROGENEOUS  NOUNS. 


33 


Heterogeneous  Nouns. 
60.    Heterogeneous  nouns  vary  in  Gender.     Thus  :  — 

1.  Several  nouns  of  the  Second  Declension  have  two  forms,  —  one 
Masc.  in  -us,  and  one  Neuter  in  -um ;  as,  clipeus,  clipeum,  shield ; 
oarrus,  carrum,  carL 

2.  Other  nouns  have  one  gender  in  the  Singular,  another  in  the 
Plural;  as, — 


SINGULAR. 

balneum,  n.,  dal/i ; 
cpulum,  n., /east ; 
frenum,  n.,  bridle', 
joous,  vc\.,jest', 
locus,  m.,  place ; 

rastrum,  n.,  rake; 


PLURAL. 

balneae,  f.,  bath-house. 
epulae,  f.,  feast. 

freni,  m.  (rarely  frena,  n.),  bridle. 
joca,  n.  (also  jooi,  m.),  Jests. 
loca,  n.,  places ;  loci,  m.,  passages 

or  topics  in  an  author. 
rastri,  m. :  rastra,  n.,  rakes. 


a.   Heterogeneous  nouns  may  at  the  same  time  be  heteroclites,  as  in  case 
of  the  first  two  examples  above. 


Plurals  -with  Change  of  Meaning. 

61.    The    following   nouns    have    one    meaning 
Singular,  and  another  in  the  Plural :  — 


m 


the 


SINGULAR. 

aedes,  temple ; 

auxilium,  help ; 

career,  prison  ; 

castrum,  fort ; 

copia,  abundance ; 

finis,  end; 

f ortuna,  fortune ; 

gratia,  favor,  gratitude ; 

impedimentum,  hindrance ; 

littera,  letter  (of  the  alphabet)  ; 

mos,  habit,  custom ; 

opera, 


(ops)  opis,  help  ; 
pars,  part ; 
sal,  salt ; 


PLURAL. 

aedes,  house. 

ausilia,  auxiliary  troops. 

carceres,  stalls  for  racing-chariots 

castra,  cainp. 

copiae,  troops,  resources. 

fines,  borders,  territory. 

fortunae,  possessions,  wealth, 

gratiae,  thanks. 

impedimenta,  baggage. 

litterae,  epistle ;  literature, 

mores,  character. 

operae,  laborers. 

opes,  resources. 

-partes,  party ;  rdle, 

s^es,  wit. 


34 


INFLECTIONS. 


B.    ADJECTIVES. 

62.  Adjectives  denote  quality.  They  are  declined  like 
nouns,  and  fall  into  two  classes,  — 

1.  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions. 

2.  Adjectives  of  the  Third  Declension. 

ADJECTIVES   OF  THE   FIRST   AND   SECOND 
DECLENSIONS. 

63.  In  these  the  Masculine  is  declined  like  hortus,  puer, 
or  ager,  the  Feminine  like  porta,  and  the  Neuter  like  bellum. 
Thus,  Masculine  like  hortus  :  — 


Bonus,  good. 

SINGULAR. 

Mascxtline. 

Feminine. 

Nexh-er. 

Nom. 

bonus 

bona 

bonum 

Gen. 

bom 

bohae 

boni 

Dat. 

bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace. 

bonum 

bonam 

bonum 

Voc. 

bone 

bona 

bonum 

Abl. 

bono 

bona 

PLURAL. 

bono 

Nom. 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Gen. 

bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace. 

bonos    . 

bonas 

bona 

Voc. 

boni 

bonae 

bona 

Abl. 

bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

1.  The  Gen.  Sing.  Masc.  and  Neut.  of  Adjectives  in  -ius  ends  in  -ii 
(not  in  -i  as  in  case  of  Nouns;  see  §  25.  i  ;  2).  So  also  the  Voc. 
Sing,  of  such  Adjectives  ends  in  -ie,  not  in  i.  Thus  eximius  forms 
Gen.  eximii;  Voc.  eximie. 

2.  Distributives  (see  §  78.  i.  <:)  regularly  form  the  Gen.  PIu.  Masc. 
and  Neut.  in  -um  instead  of  -orum  (compare  §  25.  6)  ;  as,  deuum, 
ceutenum ;  but  always  singulorum. 


ADJECTIVES  OF  FIRST  AND  SECOND  DECLENSIONS.    35 


64.    Masculine  like  puer  :  — 

Tener,  tender. 


SINGULAR. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

tener 

tenera     - 

tenerum 

Gen. 

teneri 

tenerae 

teneri 

Dat. 

tenero 

tenerae 

tenero 

Ace. 

tenerum 

teneram 

tenenim 

Voc. 

tener 

tenera 

tenerum 

Abl. 

tenero 

tenera 

PLURAL. 

tenero 

NOTH. 

teneri 

tenerae 

tenera 

Gen. 

tenerorum 

tenerarum 

tenerorum 

Dat. 

teneris 

teneris 

teneris 

Ace. 

teneros 

ten eras 

tenera 

Voc. 

teneri 

tenerae 

tenera 

Abl. 

teneris 

teneris 

teneris 

65.    Masculine  like  ager  :  — 

Sacer,  sacred. 


SINGULAR. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

sacer 

sacra 

sacrum 

Gen. 

sacri 

^       sacrae 

sacri 

Dat. 

sacro 

sacrae 

sacro 

Ace. 

sacrum 

sacram 

sacrum 

Voc. 

sacer 

sacra 

sacrum 

Abl. 

sacro 

sacra 

PLURAL. 

sacro 

Nom. 

sacri 

sacrae 

sacra 

Gen. 

sacrorum 

sacrarum 

sacrorum 

Dat. 

sacris 

sacris 

sacris 

Ace. 

sacros 

sacras 

sacra 

Voc. 

sacri 

sacrae 

sacra 

Abl. 

sacris 

sacris 

sacris 

I.    Most  adjectives  in  -er  are  declined  like  sacer.     The  following, 
however,  are  declined  like  tener :  asper,  rough;  lacer,  torn ;  liber ^/ree ; 


36 


INFLECTIONS. 


miser,  wretched ;  ^ros^ex,  prosperous ;  compounds  in  -fer  and -ger  ; 
sometimes  dexter,  right. 

2.    SditMr, full,  is  declined:  satur,  satura,  saturum. 

Nine  Irregular  Adjectives. 
66.    Here  belong  — 

alius,  another ;  alter,  the  other , 

ullus,  any ;  ntillus,  none ; 

uter,  which  ?  (of  two)  ;  neuter,  neither ; 

solus,  alone ;  totus,  whole ; 

unus,  one,  alone. 

They  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


SINGULAR. 

Masculine.   Feminine.   Neuter. 

alia  aliud 

alterius  alterius  ^ 

alii  alii 

aliam  aliud 


Masculine.  Feminine.  Neuter. 


Nom.  alius 
Gen.    alterius 
Dat.    alii 
Ace.     alium 

Voc.    

Abl.     alio 


alter 
alterius 
alter! 
alterum 


altera  alterum 

alterius  alterius 

alteri  2  alter! 

alteram  alterum 


alia 


alio 


Nom.  uter  utra  utrum 

Gen.  utrius  utrius  utrius 

Dat.  utr!  utii  utri 

Ace.  utrum  utram  utrum 

Voc.  

Abl.  utro 


altero  altera  altero 

totus  tota  totum 

totius  totius  totius 

tot!  tot!  tot! 

totum  t5tam  totum 


utra 


utro 


toto 


tota 


toto 


1.  All  these  words  lack  the  Vocative.     The  Plural  is  regular. 

2.  Neuter  is  declined  like  uter. 

ADJECTIVES   OF   THE   THIRD   DECLENSION. 

67.   These  fall  into  three  classes,  — 

1.  Adjectives  of  three  terminations  in  the  Nominative 
Singular,  —  one  for  each  gender. 

2.  Adjectives  of  two  terminations. 

3.  Adjectives  of  one  termination. 

1  This  is  practically  always  aised  instead  of  alius  in  the  Genitive. 

2  A  Dative  Singular  Feminine  alterae  also  occurs. 


ADJECTIVES  OF  THE  THIRD   DECLENSION.        37 

a.  With  the  exception  of  Comparatives,  and  a  few  other  words 
mentioned  below  in  §  70.  i,  all  Adjectives  of  the  Third 
Declension  follow  the  inflection  of  I-stems ;  i.e.  they  have 
the  Ablative  Singular  in  -i,  the  Genitive  Plural  in  -ium,  the 
Accusative  Plural  in  is  (as  well  as  -es)  in  the  Masculine 
and  Feminine,  and  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Plural 
in  -ia  in  Neuters. 

Adjectives  of  Three  Terminations. 
68.    These  are  declined  as  follows  : -T- 


Acer,  sharp. 

,:> 

SINGULAR. 

Masculine. 

Feminink. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Gen. 

acris 

acris 

acris 

Dat. 

acri 

acri 

acri 

Ace. 

acrem 

acrem 

acre 

Voc. 

acer 

acris 

acre 

Abl. 

acrl 

acri 

PLURAL. 

acri 

Nom. 

acres 

acres 

acria 

Gen. 

acrium 

acrium 

acrium 

Dat. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

Ace. 

acres,  -is 

acres,  is 

acria 

Voc. 

acres 

acres 

acria 

Abl. 

acribus 

acribus 

acribus 

1.  Like  acer  are  declined  alacer,  lively',  csun-pester,  level ;  cele- 
her, /amous ;  equester,  equestrian ',  paluster,  marshy;  pedester, 
pedestrian;  puter,  rotten;  saluber,  wholesome;  Silvester,  woody; 
terrester,  terrestrial;  volucer,  winged;  also  names  of  months  in 
-ber,  as  Septemiber. 

2.  Celer,  celeris,  celere,  swift,  retains  the  e  before  r,  but  lacks 
the  Genitive  Plural. 

3.  In  the  Nominative  Singular  of  Adjectives  of  this  class  the  Femi- 
nine form  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Masculine.  This  is  regularly  true 
of  salubris,  silvestris,  and  terrestris.  In  case  of  the  other  words 
in  the  list,  the  use  of  the  Feminine  for  the  Masculine  is  confined  chiefly 
to  early  and  late  Latin,  and  to  poetry. 


38 


INFLECTIONS. 


Adjectives  of  Tw^o  Terminations. 
69.    These  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


Fortis, , 

strong. 

Fortior,  stronger. 

SINGULAR. 

M.   AND   F. 

Neut. 

M.    AND    F. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

fortis 

forte 

fortior 

fortius 

Gen. 

fortis 

fortis 

fortioris 

fortioris 

Dat. 

forti 

forti 

fortiori 

fortiori 

Ace. 

fortem 

forte 

fortiorem 

fortius 

Voc. 

fortis 

forte 

fortior 

fortius 

Abl 

forti 

forti 

fortiore 

fortiore 

PLURAL. 

Nom- 

fortes 

fortia 

fortiores 

fortiora 

Gen. 

fortium 

fortium 

fortiorum 

fortiorum 

Dat. 

fortibus 

fortibus 

fortioribus 

fortioribus 

Ace. 

fortes,  -is 

fortia 

fortiores,  -is 

fortiora 

Voc. 

fortes 

fortia 

fortiores 

fortiora 

Abl. 

fortibus 

fortibus 

fortioribus 

fortioribus 

I.   Fortior  is  th 

le  Comparative 

of  fortis.     All  Comparatives  are 

yularh 

r  declined  in 

the  same  way. 

The  Ace.  Plu.  in 

-is  is  rare. 

Adjectives  of  One  Termination. 


70. 


Felix,  happy. 


Prudens,  prudent. 


SINGULAR. 

M.   AND   F.  - 

Neut. 

M.   AND   F. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

felix 

felix 

prudens 

prudens 

Gen. 

felicis 

felicis 

prudentis 

prudentis 

Dat. 

felTci 

felTci 

prudent! 

prudent! 

Ace, 

felicem 

felix 

prudentem 

priidens 

Voc. 

fellx 

felTx 

prudens 

prudens 

Abl. 

fellcl 

felici 

PLURAL. 

prudent! 

prudent! 

Nom. 

felTces 

felTcia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Gen. 

felTcium 

felicium 

prudentium 

prudentium 

Dat. 

felicibus 

felicibus 

prudentibus 

prudentibus 

Ace. 

felTces,  -is 

felTcia 

prudentes,  -is 

prudentia 

Voc, 

felTces 

felicia 

priidentes 

prudentia 

Abl. 

felicibus 

felicibus 

prOdentibus 

prudentibus 

ADJECTIVES   OF  THE  THIRD   DECLENSION.        39 


Vetus, 

old. 

SINGULAR. 

Plus, 

more. 

M.    AND    F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND   F. 

Neut. 

Nom, 

vetus 

vetus 

plus 

Gen. 

veteris 

veteris 

pluris 

Dat. 

veteri 

veteri 

Ace. 

veterem 

vetus 

plus 

Voc. 

vetus 

vetus 

Abl. 

vetere 

vetere 

plure 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

veteres 

Vetera 

plures 

plura 

Gen. 

veterum 

veterum 

plurium 

plurium 

Dat. 

veteribus 

veteribus 

pluribus 

pluribus 

Ace. 

veteres 

Vetera 

plures,  -is 

plura 

Voc. 

veteres 

Vetera 

Abl. 

veteribus 

veteribus 

pluribus 

pluribus 

1 .  It  will  be  observed  that  vetus  is  declined  as  a  pure  Consonant- 
Stem  ;  i.e.  Ablative  Singular  in  -e.  Genitive  Plural  in  -um,  Nominative 
Plural  Neuter  in  -a,  and  Accusative  Plural  Masculine  and  Feminine  in 
-es  only.  In  the  same  way  are  declined  compos,  controlling ',  dives, 
rich]  particeps,  sharing;  pauper,  poor;  princeps,  chief;  sospes, 
safe;  superstes,  surviving.     Yet  dives  always  has  Neut.  Plu.  ditia. 

2.  Inops,  needy ^  and  memor,  mindful^  have  Ablative  Singular 
inopi,  memori,  but  Genitive  Plural  inopum,  memorum. 

3.  Participles  in  -ans  and  -ens  follow  the  declension  of  i-stems. 
But  they  do  not  have  -i  in  the  Ablative,  except  when  employed  as  adjec- 
tives ;  when  used  as  participles  or  as  substantives,  they  have  -e ;  as,  — 

a  sapieuti  viro,  by  a  wise  man ;  but 

a  sapiente,  by  a  philosopher. 

Tarquinio  regnante,  under  the  reign  of  Tarquin. 

4.  Plus,  in  the  Singular,  is  always  a  noun. 

5.  In  the  Ablative  Singular,  adjectives,  when  used  as  substantives, — 
a')  usually  retain  the  adjective  declension  ;  as,  — 

aequalis,  contemporary^  Abl.  aequali. 

consularis,  ex-consul,      Abl.  c6nsul5ri. 
So  names  of  Months;  as,  Aprili,  April;  Decembri,   De- 
cember. 
^)  But  adjectives  used  as  proper  names  have  -e  in  the  Ablative 
Singular ;  as,  Celere,  Celer  ;  JuvenSle,  Juvenal. 


40  INFLECTIONS. 


c)  Patrials  in  -as,  -atis  and  -Is,  -itis,  when  designating  places, 
regularly  have  -i ;  as,  in  Arpinati,  on  the  estate  at  Arpinum  ; 
yet  -e,  when  used  of  persons  ;  as,  ab  Arpinate,  dy  an  Arpi- 
natian. 

6.  A  very  few  indeclinable  adjectives  occur,  the  chief  of  which  are 
irvi^i,  frugal ;  nequam,  worthless. 

7.  In  poetry,  adjectives  and  participles  in  -ns  sometimes  form  the 
Gen.  Plu.  in  -um  instead  of -ium;  as,  venientum,  of  those  coming. 

COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

71.  I.  There  are  three  degrees  of  Comparison,  —  the 
Positive,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative. 

2.  The  Comparative  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  -ior 
(Neut.  -ius),  and  the  Superlative  by  adding  -issimus  (-a,  -um), 
to  the  Stem  of  the  Positive  deprived  of  its  final  vowel ;  as,  — 

altus,  high.  altior,  higher,        altissimus,      \    ^^  ^^, '.  ^ 

(  very  high. 
fortis,  brave,  fortior,  fortissimus. 

iB\x,  fortjmate,        felTcior,  felicissimus. 

So  also  Participles,  when  used  as  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

doctus,  learned,       doctior,  doctissimus. 

egens,  needy,  egentior,  egentissimus. 

3.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  Superlative  by  appending  -rimus  to 
the  Nominative  of  the  Positive.     The  Comparative  is  regular.     Thus  :  — 

asper,  rough,  asperior,  asperrimus. 

pulcher,  beautiful,   pulchrior,  pulcherrimus. 

acer,  sharp,  acrior,  acerrimus. 

celer,  swift,  celerior,  celerrimus. 

a.    Notice  maturus,  maturior,  maturissimus  or  maturrimus. 

4.  Five  Adjectives  in  -ills  form  the  Superlative  by  adding  -limus  to 
the  Stem  of  the  Positive  deprived  of  its  final  vowel.  The  Comparative 
is  regular.     Thus  :  — 

facilis,  easy,  facilior,  facillimus. 

difficilis,  difficult,  difficiiior,  difficillimus. 

similis,  like,  similior,  simillimus. 

dissimilis,  unlike,  dissimilior,  dissimillimus. 

humilis,  low,  humilior,  humillimus. 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


41 


5.  Adjectives  in  -dicus,  -ficus,  and  -volus  form  the  Comparative 
and  Superlative  as  though  from  forms  in  -dicens,  -iicens,  -vol§ns. 
Thus :  — 


maledicus,  slanderous^            maledlcentior,  maledfcentissimus. 

magnificus,  magnificent^         magnificentior,  magnificentissimus. 

benevolus,  kindly^                   benevolentipr,  benevolentissimus. 

a.   Positives  in  -dicens  and  -volens  occur  in  early  Latin ;  as, 

maledioens,  benevolens. 

6.    Dives  has    the   Comparative    divitior  or   ditior ;    Superlative 
divitissimus  or  ditissimus. 


Irregular  Comparison. 

72.    Several 

Adj 

ectives  vary  the 

Stem  in  Comparison; 

viz.  — 

bonus,  good^ 

melior, 

optimus. 

malus,  bad^ 

pejor. 

pessimus. 

parvus,  small, 

minor, 

minimus. 

magnus,  large^ 

major, 

maximus. 

multus,  much, 

plus. 

plurimus. 

frugi,  thrifty, 

frugalior, 

frugalissimus. 

nequam,  worthless, 

nequior. 

nequissimus. 

73. 


Defective  Comparison. 

I .    Positive  lacking  entirely,  — 


(Cf.  prae,  in  front  of) 

(Cf.  citra,  this  side  of) 

(Cf.  ultra,  beyond.) 

(Cf.  intra,  within.) 

(Cf.  prope,  near.) 

(Cf.  de,  down.) 

(Cf.  sirchzic-potis,  possible.) 


prior,  foriner,  primus,  first. 

citerior,  on  this  side,  citimus,  near. 
ulterior,  farther,       ultimus,  farthest. 


mtenor,  inner, 
propior,  nearer, 
deterior,  inferior, 
potior,  preferable, 

2.   Positive  occurring  only  in  special  cases,— 
posterd  die,  ann5,  etc., 
the  following  day,  etc. 


intimus,  iimiost. 
proximus,  nearest. 
deterrimus,  worst. 
potissimus,  chiefest. 


posterior,  later. 


poster!,  descendants, 
exteri,  foreigners, 
nationes    exterae,  foT' 
eign  nations, 


postremus, 
postumuB, 


I  latest, 
I  last. 


.1 


exterior,  outer, 


extremus, 
extimus, 


f  late-born, 
{ posthumous. 

\  outermost. 


42 


INFLECTIONS. 


lowest. 


inferl,  gods  of  the  lower  world,  \ 

Mare  Inferum,  Mediterranean  \  inferior,  lower, 

Sea,  J 

superi,  gods  above,  1  .  J  supremus,  last. 

Mare  Superum,  Adriatic  Sea,    \  >     5       >   j  summus,  highest. 


infimus, 
imus. 


3.    Comparative  lacking. 

vetus,  old, 
fidxxs,  faithful, 
novus,  new, 

1 

2 

veterrimus. 
fidissimus. 
novissimus,3  last 

sacer,  sacred, 
i2^s,\i?,,  false, 

. 

sacerrimus. 
falsissimus. 

so  in  some  other  words  less 

frequently  used. 

4.    Superlative  lacking, 
alacer,  lively, 
ingens,  great, 
salutaris,  wholesome, 

alacrior, 

ingentior, 

salutarior. 

juvenis,  young, 
senex,  old, 

junior, 
senior. 

4 
5 

a.    The  Superlative  is  lacking  also  in  many  adjectives  in  -alis, 
-ilis,  -ilis,  -bills,  and  in  a  few  others. 


Comparison  by  Magis  and  Majcime. 

74.  Many  adjectives  do  not  admit  terminational  compar- 
ison, but  form  the  Comparative  and  Superlative  degrees  by 
prefixing  magis  {more)  and  maxime  {most).     Here  belong  — 

1.  Many  adjectives  ending  in  -alis,  -aris,  -idus,  -Ilis,  -icus,  imus, 
inus,  -orus. 

2.  Adjectives  in -us,  preceded  by  a  vowel;  as,  idoneus,  adapted; 
arduus,  steep ;  necessarius,  necessary. 

a.   Adjectives  in  -quus,  of  course,  do  not  come  under  this  rule. 
The  first  u  in  such  cases  is  not  a  vowel,  but  a  consonant. 

1  Supplied  by  vetustior,  from  vetustus. 

2  Supplied  by  recentior. 

3  For  newest,  recentissimus  is  used. 
*  Supplied  by  minimus  natu. 

5  Supplied  by  maximus  natu. 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS.     43 


Adjectives  not  admitting  Comparison. 

75.  Here  belong  — ^ 

1 .  Many  adjectives,  which,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  do 
not  admit  of  comparison  ;  as,  hodiernus,  of  to-day,  annuus,  annual; 
mortalis,  mortal. 

2.  Some  special  words;  as,  mirus,  gnarus,  merus ;  and  a  few 
others. 

FORMATION   AND   COMPARISON   OF   ADVERBS. 

76.  Adverbs  are  for  the  most  part  derived  from  adjec- 
tives, and  depend  upon  them  for  their  comparison. 

1.  Adverbs  derived  from  adjectives  of  the  First  and 
Second  Declensions  form  the  Positive  by  changing  -1  of 
the  Genitive  Singular  to  -e ;  those  derived  from  adjectives 
of  the  Third  Declension,  by  changing  -is  of  the  Genitive 
Singular  to  -iter ;  as,  — 

cams,  care,  dearly ; 

pulcher,  pulchre,  beautifully  \ 

acer,  ^cxiX.G,x,  fiercely  i 

levis,  leviter,  lightly. 

a.    But  Adjectives  in   -ns,  and  a  few  others,  add  -er  (instead 
of  -iter),  to  form  the  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

sapiens,     sapienter,  wisely ; 
sollers,      sollerter,  skillfully. 

Note  audax,  audacter,  boldly. 

2.  The  Comparative  of  all  Adverbs  regularly  consists  of  the  Accu- 
sative Singular  Neuter  of  the  Comparative  of  the  Adjective ;  while  the 
Superlative  of  the  Adverb  is  formed  by  changing  the  -1  of  the  Genitive 
Singular  of  the  Superlative  of  the  Adjective  to  -e.     Thus  — 


(carus) 

car§,  dearly, 

carius, 

carissime. 

(pulcher) 

pulchre,  beautifully^ 

pulchrius. 

pulcherrime. 

(acer) 

acriter,  fiercely, 

acrius. 

acerrime. 

(levis) 

leviter,  lightly, 

levius. 

levissime. 

(sapiens) 

sapienter,  wisely, 

sapientius. 

sapientissime, 

(audax)         audacter,  boldly, 


audacius,        audacissimS. 


44 


INFLECTIONS. 


Adverbs  Peculiar  in  Comparison  and  Formation. 

77.    I. 


bene,  well, 
male,  ///, 

melius, 
pejus. 

optime. 
pessime. 

magnopere,  greatly, 
multum,  7nuch, 

magis, 
plus, 

maxim  e. 
pliirimum 

n5n  multum,  ]  ,.,^, 

\  little, 
parum,            J 

diu,  lo7ig. 

minus, 
diutius. 

minime. 
diutissime. 

nequiter,  worthlessly, 
saepe,  often, 

mature,  betimes, 

,  nequius, 
saepius, 

maturius, 

nequissime. 
saepissimS. 
matiirrime. 
maturissime. 

prope,  near, 
nuper,  recently, 

secus,  otherwise. 

propius, 

potius,  rather, 

\  Previously, 
prius,   \\   .          -^' 
^        '   1  before, 

setius,  less. 

proxime. 
nuperrime. 
potissimum,  especially. 

\  primum,yfrj/. 

2.  A  number  of  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions 
form  an  Adverb  in  -6,  instead  of  -e ;  as,  — 

crebro,  frequently ;  falso,  falsely ; 

continuo,  immediately ;  subito,  suddenly, 

rar5,  rarely ;  and  a  few  others. 

a.     cito,  quickly,  has  -6. 

3.  A  few  adjectives  employ  the  Accusative  Singular  Neuter  as  the 
Positive  of  the  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

multum,  much ;  paulum,  little  ;  facile,  easily. 

4.  A  few  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions  form  the 
Positive  in  -iter ;  as,  — 

firmus,  ilx'xvit^x,  firmly  ',  humanus,  hiimaniter,  hu7nanly  ; 

largus,  largiter,  copiously ;  alius,  aliter,  otherwise, 

a.  violentus  has  violenter. 

5.  Various  other  adverbial  suffixes  occur,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  -tus  and  -tim;  as,  antiquitus,  anciently;  paulatim, 
gradually. 


NUMERALS. 


45 


NUMERALS. 
78.    Numerals  may  be  divided  into  — 
L   Numeral  Adjectives,  comprising  — 

a.  Cardinals',  2is,  vLnns,  orte ;  duo,  two ;  etc, 

b.  Ordinals;  as,  primus, yfrj-/;  secundLMS,  second ;  etc. 

c.  Distributives ;  as,  singuli,  one  by  one ;  bini,  two  by  two ;  etc, 

II.   Numeral  Adverbs  ;  as,  semel,  once;  bis,  twice ;  etc. 


79.       Table  of  Numeral  Adjectives  and  Adverbs. 


Cardinals. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

Adverbs. 

I. 

unus,  una,  unum  primus, ^rj/ 

singuli,  one  by  one  semel,  once 

2. 

duo,  duae,  duo 

secundus,  second 

binl,  two  by  two 

bis 

3- 

tres,  tria 

tertius,  third 

terni  (trini) 

ter 

4. 

quattuor 

qua-rtus,  fourth 

quaterni 

quater 

5- 

quinque 

qulntus.y?/?/^ 

quini 

quinquies 

6. 

sex 

sextus 

seni 

sexies 

7. 

septem 

Septimus 

septeni 

septies 

8. 

octo 

octavus 

octoni 

octies 

9- 

novem 

nonus 

noveni 

novies 

lO. 

decern 

decimus 

deni 

decies 

II. 

undecim 

undecimus 

undeni 

iindecies 

12. 

duodecim 

duodecimus 

duodeni 

duodecies 

13- 

tredecim 

tertius  decimus 

ternI  denI 

terdecies 

14. 

quattuordecim 

quartus  decimus 

quaterni  denI 

quaterdecies 

15- 

qulndecim 

quintus  decimus 

quIni  deni 

•    quinquies  decies 

16. 

j  sedecim    | 
j  sexdecim  f 

sextus  decimus 

senI  denI 

sexies  decies 

17- 

septendecim 

Septimus  decimus 

septem  deni 

septies  decies 

18. 

duodevTginti 

duodevlcesimus 

duodevlceni 

octies  decies 

19. 

undevlgintl 

ilndevlcesimus 

ilndevlceni 

novies  decies 

20. 

vigintl 

vicesimus 

viceni 

vicies 

21. 

■  vigintl  unus 
unus  et  vigintl 

vicesimus  primus 
unus  et  vicesimus 

vTcenI  singuli 
singuli  et  vIcenI 

vicies  semel 

22, 

vigintl  duo 

vicesimus  secundus 

vIcenI  binl 

j  vicies  bis 

duo  et  vigintl 

alter  et  vicesimus 

binl  et  vlcenl 

30. 

triginta 

tricesimus 

trlceni 

tricies 

40. 

quadraginta 

quadragesimus 

quadragem 

quadragies 

SO. 

quinquaginta 

quinquagesimus 

quinquageni 

quinquagies 

60. 

sexaginta 

sexagesimus 

sexageni 

sexagies 

70. 

septuaginta 

septuagesimus 

septuageni 

septuagies 

80. 

octoginta 

octogesimus 

octogeni 

octogies 

90. 

nonaginta 

nonagesimus 

nonageni 

nonagies 

100. 

centum 

centesimus 

centeni 

centies 

46 


INFLECTIONS. 


Cardinals. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

Adverbs. 

lOI. 

centum  unus 
centum  et  unus 

centesimus  primus 
centesimus  et  primus 

centeni  singull      ) 

^-  -   ^    .       ,-  [  centies  semel 
centeni  et  smguh  j 

200. 

ducenti,  -ae,  -a 

ducentesimus 

duceni , 

ducenties 

300. 

trecenti 

trecentesimus 

treceni 

trecenties 

400. 

quadringenti 

quadringentesimus 

quadringeni 

quadringenties 

Soo- 

quingenti 

quingentesimus 

quingeni 

quingenties 

600. 

sescenti 

sescentesimus 

sescenT 

sescenties 

700. 

septingenti 

septingentesimus 

septingem 

septingenties 

800. 

octingenti 

octingentesimus 

octingeni 

octingenties 

900. 

nongenti 

nongentesimus 

nongeni 

nongenties 

1,000. 

mille 

mlUesimus 

singula  milia 

milies 

2,000. 

duo  milia 

bis  millesimus 

bina  milia 

bis  milies 

100,000. 

centum  mllia 

centies  millesimus 

centena  milia 

centies  milies 

1,000,000. 

decies  centena 

decies  centies  mille- 

decies centena 

decies  centies 

milia 

simus 

milia 

milies 

Note 

. ensimus 

and  -iens   are"  often  written   in 

the   numerals 

instead  of -esimus  and 

[  -igs. 

Declension  of  the  Cardinals. 

80.    I .    The  declension  of  unus  has  already  been  given  under  §  66. 

2.  Duo  is  declined  as  follows  :  — 

A/bm.  duo  duae  duo 

Gen.    duorum  duarum  duorum 

Dat.    duobus  duabus  duobus 

Ace.     duos,  duo  duas  duo 

Adl.     duobtis  duabus  duobus 

a.    So  ambo,  dot/t,  except  that  its  final  o  is  long. 

3.  Tres  is  declined, — 

A^om.  tres  tria 

Gen.    trium  trium 

Z>aL    tribus  tribus 

Ace.     tres  (tris)  tria 

Al>/.     tribus  tribus 

4.  The  hundreds  (except  centum)  are  declined  like  the  Plural  of 
bonus. 

5.  Mille  is  regularly  an  adjective  in  the  Singular,  and  indeclinable. 
In  the  Plural  it  is  a  substantive  (followed  by  the  Genitive  of  the  objects 
enumerated;  §  201.  i),  and  is  declined, — 

JVom.  milia  Ace.  milia 

Gen.     milium  Voc.  milia 

DaL    milibus  Adl.  milibus 


NUMERALS.  47 


Thus  mille  homines,  a  thousand  meti;    but  duo  milia  hominum, 
two  thousand  tnen^  literally  two  thousands  of  men. 

a.   Occasionally  the  Singular  admits  the  Genitive  construction ; 
as,  mille  hominum. 
6.    Other  Cardinals   are   indeclinable.     Ordinals   and   Distributives 
are  declined  like  Adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second  Declensions. 

Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  Numerals. 

81.    I.    The  compounds  from  21  to  99  may  be  expressed  either  with 

the  larger  or  the  smaller  numeral  first.     In  the  latter  case,  et  is  used. 

Thus :  — 

triginta  sex  or  sex  et  triginta,  thirty-six. 

2.  The  numerals  under  90,  ending  in  8  and  9,  are  often  expressed 
by  subtraction  ;  as,  — 

duodeviginti,  eighteen  (but  also  octodecim)  ; 

undequadraginta,  thirty-nine  (but  also  triginta  novem  or  novem 
et  triginta). 

3.  Compounds  over  100  regularly  have  the  largest  number  first; 
the  others  follow  without  et ;  as,  — 

centum  viginti  septem,  07te  hundred  and  twenty-seven. 
anno  octingentesimo  octogesimo  secundo,  in  the  year  882. 

Yet  et  may  be  inserted  where  the  smaller  number  is  either  a  digit  or 
one  of  the  tens  ;  as,  — 

centum  et  septem,  one  hujtdred  and  seven  ; 

centum  et  quadraginta,  one  hundred  and  forty. 

4.  The  Distributives  are  used  — 

^)  To  denote  so  7nuch  each,  so  many  apiece  ;  as,  — 

bina  talenta  eis'  dedit,  he  gave  them  two  talents  each. 

h)  When  those  nouns  that  are  ordinarily  Plural  in  form,  but 
Singular  in  meaning,  are  employed  in  a  Plural  sense ;  as,  — 
binae  litterae,  two  epistles. 

But  in  such  cases,  uni  (not  singuli)   is  regularly  employed 
for  one,  and  trini  (not  terni)  for  three  ;  as,  — 
unae  litterae,  one  epistle ;  trinae  litterae,  three  epistles. 

c)  In  multiplication ;  as,  — 

bis  bina  sunt  quattuor,  twice  two  are  four. 

d^  Often  in  poetry,  instead  of  the  cardinals  ;  as,  — 
bina  hastilia,  two  spears. 


+8 


INFLECTIONS. 


C.   PRONOUNS. 

82.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  that  indicates  something  with- 
out naming  it. 

83.  There  are  the  following  classes  of  pronouns  :  — 

I.  Personal.  V.  Intensive. 

II.  Reflexive.  VI.  Relative. 

III.  Possessive.  VII.  Interrogative. 

IV.  Demonstrative.  VIII.  Indefinite.          ,   • 

I.   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

84.  These  correspond  to  the  English  /,  you,  he,  she,  it, 
etc.,  and  are  declined  as  follows  :  — 


First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

SINGULAR. 

Third  Person. 

Norn,  ego,  / 

tu,  thou 

is,  he ;  ea,  she  ;  id,  // 

Gen.    mei 

tuT 

(For  declension  see  §  87.) 

Dat.    mihi  ^ 

tibii 

Ace.     me 

te 

Voc. 

tu 

AM.     me 

te 

PLURAL. 

Nam.    nos,  we 

vos,jj/^« 

_        (  nostrum 
Gen.  \ 

(  nostri 

(  vestrum 
\  vestri 

Dat.     nobis 

vobis 

Ace.      nos 

vos 

Voc.      

vos 

Adl.      nobis 

vobTs 

1 .  A  Dative  Singular  mi  occurs  in  poetry. 

2.  Empiiatic  forms  in  -met  are  occasionally  found;  as,  egomet, 
I  myself ;  tibimet,  to  you  yourself ;  tu  has  tute  and  tutemet  (written 
also  tutimet). 

1  The  final  i  is  sometimes  long  in  poetry. 


PRONOUNS.  49 


3.  In  early  Latin,  med  and  ted  occur  as  Accusative  and  Ablative 
forms. 

II.     REFLEXIVE   PRONOUNS. 

85.  These  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or  clause 
in  which  they  stand  ;  like  myself,  yourself  ,  in  *  I  see  myself,' 
etc.     They  are  decHned  as  follows  :  — 


First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

Supplied  by  oblique 

Supplied  by  oblique 

cases  of  ego. 

cases  of  tu. 

Gen. 

mei,  of  myself 

tuT,  of  thyself 

SUl 

Dat. 

mihi,  to  viyself 

tibi,  to  thyself 

Sibil 

Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 

me,  myself 

te,  thyself 

se  or  sese 

me,  with  myself,  etc.      te,  with  thyself,  etc. 

se  or  sese 

1.  The  Reflexive  of  the  Third  Person  serves  for  all  genders  and  for 
both  numbers.  Thus  sui  may  mean,  of  hi?nself  herself,  itself  or  of 
themselves ;  and  so  with  the  other  forms. 

2.  All  of  the  Reflexive  Pronouns  have  at  times  a  reciprocal  force ; 
as, — 

inter  se  pugnant,  they  fight  with  each  other. 

3.  In  early  Latin,  sed  occurs  as  Accusative  and  Ablative. 

III.     POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS. 

86.  These  are  strictly  adjectives  of  the  First  and  Second 
Declensions,  and  are  inflected  as  such.     They  are  — 

First  Person.  Second  Person. 

•   meus,  -a,  -um,  my ;  tuus,  -a,  -um,  thy ; 

noster,  nostra,  nostrum,  otir ;  vester,  vestra,  vestrum,  your ; 

Third  Person. 
suus,  -a,  -um,  his,  her,  its,  their. 
I.    Suus  is  exclusively  Reflexive;  as,  — 

pater  liber  os  suos  amat,  the  father  loves  his  children. 

Otherwise,  his,  her,  its  are  regularly  expressed  by  the  Genitive  Singular 
of  is,  viz.  ejus ;  and  their  by  the  Genitive  Plural,  eorum,  earum. 

1  The  final  i  is  sometimes  long  in  poetry. 


so 


INFLECTIONS. 


2.  The  Vocative  Singular  Masculine  of  meus  is  mi, 

3.  The  enclitic  -pte  may  be  joined  to  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the 
Possessive  Pronouns  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis.  This  is  particularly 
common  in  case  of  suo,  sua ;  as,  suopte,  suapte. 


IV.     DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

87.    These  point  out  an  object  as  here  or  there,  or  as 
previously  mentioned.      They  are  — 

hic,  this  (where  I  am)  ; 

iste,  that  (where  you  are)  ; 

ille,  that  (something  distinct  from  the  speaker)  ; 

is,  that  (weaker  than  ille)  ; 

idem,  the  same. 

HTc,  iste,  and  ille  are  accordingly  the  Demonstratives  of  the  First, 
Second,  and  Third  Persons  respectively. 

Hie,  this. 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom 

.     hic 

haec 

hoc 

hi 

hae 

haec 

Gen. 

hiijus  1 

hQjus 

hujus 

horum 

harum 

horum 

Dat. 

huic 

huic 

huic 

his 

his 

his 

Ace. 

hunc 

hanc 

hoc 

hos 

has 

haec 

Abl. 

hoc 

hac 

hoc 

his 

his 

his 

Iste, 

that,  that  of  yours. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom 

.     iste 

ista 

istud  2 

istl 

istae 

ista  2 

Gen. 

istius 

istius 

istius 

istorum 

istarum 

istorum 

Dat. 

isti 

istI 

isti 

istis 

istis 

istis 

Ace. 

istum 

istam 

istud 

istos 

istas 

ista  2 

Abl. 

isto 

ista 

istd 

istls 

istis 

istis 

Ille 

(archaic  oUe),  that,  that  one,  he, 

is  declined  like  iste.^ 

1  Forms  of  hic  ending  in  -s  sometimes  append  -ce  for  emphasis ;  as,  hiljusce, 
this  .  .  .  here ;  hosce,  hisce.  When  -ne  is  added,  -c  and  -ce  become  -ci ;  as, 
huncine,  hoscine. 

2  For  istud,  Istuc  sometimes  occurs ;  for  ista,  istaec. 

3  For  illud,  illuc  sometimes  occurs. 


INTENSIVE  PRONOUN.  —  RELATIVE  PRONOUN.   5 1 


Is,  he^  ihis,  thai. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine, 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Norn. 

is              ea 

id 

el,  il,  (I) 

eae 

ea 

Gen. 

ejus          ejus 

ejus 

e5rum 

earum 

eorum 

Dai. 

el              ei 

el 

eis,  iis 

els,  iis 

els,  iis 

Ace. 

eum          earn 

id 

eos 

eas 

ea 

Abl. 

eo             ea 

SINGULAR. 

eo 
Idem,  ihe 

eis,  ils 
■  same. 

els,  iis 

PLURAL. 

els,  iis 

Mascuune.      Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

No7n. 

idem         eadem 

idem 

J  eidem  1 
\ildem  J 

eaedem 

eadem 

Gen. 

ejusdem   ejusdem 

ejusdem 

eorundem 

earundem  eorundem 

Dai. 

eidem       eidem 

eidem 

eisdem 

eisdem 

eisdem 

Ace. 

eundem   eandem 

idem 

eosdem 

easdem 

eadem 

Abl. 

eodem      eadem 

eodem 

eisdem 

eisdem 

eisdem 

The  Nom.  Plu.  Masc.  also  has  idem,  and  the  Dat.  Abl 

.  Plu.  isdem  or  iisdem. 

V.     THE   INTENSIVE   PRONOUN. 
88.    The  Intensive  Pronoun  in  Latin  is  ipse.     It  corre- 
sponds to  the  English  myself,  etc.,  in  *  /  myself,  he  himself.' 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom. 

ipse 

ipsa 

ipsum 

ipsI 

ipsae 

ipsa 

Gen. 

ipslus 

ipslus 

ipslus 

ipsdrum 

ipsarum 

ipsorum 

Dai. 

ipsi 

ipsI 

ipsI 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

Ace. 

ipsum 

ipsam 

ipsum 

ipsos 

ipsas 

ipsa 

Abl. 

ipso 

ipsa 

ipso 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

VI.     THE   RELATIVE   PRONOUN. 
89.    The  Relative  Pronoun  is  qm,  who.     It  is  declined :  — 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nom.  qui 

quae 

quod 

qui 

quae 

quae 

Gen.    cujus 

cujus 

cujus 

quorum 

quarum 

quorum 

Dai.    cui 

cui 

cui 

quibus  2 

quibus  2 

quibus  2 

Ace.     quem 

quam 

quod 

quos 

quas 

quae 

Abl.     quo  1 

quai 

qu5i 

quibus  ^ 

quibus  2 

quibus  2 

1  An  ablative  qui  occurs  in  quicum, 

with  whom. 

2  Sometimes  quia. 

52 


INFLECTIONS. 


VII.     INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUNS. 
90.    The   Interrogative   Pronouns  are  quis,  whof  (sub- 
stantive) and  qui,  what?  what  kind  off  (adjective). 

PLURAL. 
Neuter  . 
quid 
cujus 
cui 
quid 
quo 

2.   Qui,  what  f  what  kind  of?  is  declined  precisely  like  the  Relative 
Pronoun  ;  viz.  qui,  quae,  quod,  etc. 

a.  An  old  Ablative  qui  occurs,  in  the  sense  oihow?  why  f 

b.  Qui  is  sometimes  used  for  quis  in  Indirect  Questions. 

c.  Quis,  when  limiting  words  denoting  persons,  is  sometimes 
an  adjective.  But  in  such  cases  quis  homo  =  what  man? 
whereas  qui  homo  =  what  sort  of  man  ? 

d.  Quis  and  qui  may  be  strengthened  by  adding -nam.   Thus: — 
Substantive  :  quisnam,  who,  pray  ?  quidnam,  what,  pray  ? 
Adjective  :       quinam,  quaenam,  quodnam,  of  what  kind,  pray? 


I.   Q 

uis, 

who  ? 
SINGULAR 

Masc.  and  Fem. 

Nom. 

quis 

Gen. 

cujus 

Dat. 

cui 

Ace. 

quem 

AbL 

quo 

The  rare  Plural 
follows  the  de- 
clension of  the 
Relative  Pronoun. 


VIII.     INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS. 
91.    These  have  the  general  force  of  some  one,  any  one, 

SUBSTANTIVES. 
Neut. 

any  one, 
anything, 
some  one, 
something. 


M.  AND  F. 

quis, 

aliquis, 

quisquam 


quid, 
aliquid, 


quidquam,  \      -^   , . 

\  anything. 

';v.ispiam,  quidpiam,  |  ^^-^  ""^' 

\  anything. 

quisque,  quidque,  each. 

any  one 

{anything) 

you  wish. 

[  a  certain 

quidam,  quae  dam,  quiddam,  |  person, 

\  or  thing. 


quivis,  quaevis,        quidvis, 
quilibet.quaelibet,  quidlibet, 


Masc. 
qui, 

aliqul. 


ADJECTIVES. 
Fem. 


quae,  qua, 
aliqua, 


Neut. 
quod,  any. 

aliquod,  any. 


quisquam, 

quispiam,  quaepiam, 
quisque,    quaeque, 
quTvis,        quaevis, 
quilibet,    quaelibet, 


quidquam, 


any 


I  (rare), 

quodpiam,  any. 
quodque,  each. 
quodvTs,     [  ^'^ 

i  you 

quodlibet,        .  , 
[Tmsh. 


quidam,    quaedara,      quoddam, 


acer* 
tain. 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.— PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES.  53 

1.  In  the  Indefinite  Pronouns,  only  the  pronominal  part  is  declined. 
Thus  :  Genitive  Singular  alicujus,  cujuslibet,  etc. 

2.  Note  that  aliqui  has  aliqua  in  the  Nominative  Singular  Femi- 
nine, also  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative  Plural  Neuter.  Qui  has 
both  qua  and  quae  in  these  same  cases. 

3.  Quidam  forms  Accusative  Singular  quendam,  quandam  ;  Geni- 
tive Plural  quorundam,  quarundam ;  the  m  being  assimilated  to  n 
before  d. 

4.  Aliquis  may  be  used  adjectively,  and  (occasionally)  aliqui  sub- 
stantively. 

5.  In  combination  with  ne,  si,  nisi,  num,  either  quis  or  qui  may 
stand  as  a  Substantive.     Thus  :  si  quis  or  si  qui. 

6.  Ecquis,  any  one,  though  strictly  an  Indefinite,  generally  has 
interrogative  force.  It  has  both  substantive  and  adjective  forms, — 
substantive,  ecquis,  ecquid ;  adjective,  ecqui,  ecquae  and  ecqua, 
ecquod. 

7.  Quisquam  is  not  used  in  the  Plural. 

8.  There  are  two  Indefinite  Relatives,  —  quicumque  and  quisquis, 
whoever.  Quicumque  declines  only  the  first  part ;  quisquis  declines 
both,  but  has  only  quisquis,  quidquid,  quoquo,  in  common  use. 

PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

92.  The  following  adjectives,  also,  frequently  have  pro- 
nominal force  :  — 

I .    alius,  another ;  alter,  the  other ; 

uter,  which  of  two?  (interr.)  ;    neuter,  neither  ; 
whichever  of  two  (rel.)  ; 

unus,  one ;  nuUus,  no  one  (in  oblique  cases). 

2.   The  compounds, — 

uterque,  utraque,  utrumque,  each  of  two ; 

utercumque,  utracumque,  utrumcumque,  whoever  of  two; 

uterlibet,  utralibet,  utrumlibet,  either  one  you  please ; 

uter  vis,  utravis,  utrumvis,  either  one  yon  please ; 

alteruter,  alterutra,  alterutrum,  the  Ofie  or  the  other. 

In  these,  uter  alone  is  declined.  The  rest  of  the  word  remains 
unchanged,  except  in  case  of  alteruter,  which  may  decline  both  parts  ; 
as, — 

Noin.  alteruter  altera  utra  alterum  utrum 

Gen.    alterius  utrius,  etc. 


54  INFLECTIONS. 


Chapter  II.  —  Conjugation, 

93.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  something ;  as,  est, 
he  is ;  amat,  he  loves.  The  Inflection  of  Verbs  is  called 
Conjugation. 

94.  Verbs  have  Voice,  Mood,  Tense,  Number,  and 
Person :  — 

1 .  Two  Voices,  —  Active  and  Passive. 

2.  Three  Moods,  —  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Imperative. 

3.  Six  Tenses, — 

Present,  Perfect, 

Imperfect,  Pluperfect, 

Future,  Future  Perfect. 

But  the  Subjunctive  lacks  the  Future  and  Future  Perfect ;  while  the 
Imperative  employs  only  the  Present  and  Future. 

4.  Two  Numbers,  —  Singular  and  Plural. 

5.  Three  Persons, — ^  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

95.  These  make  up  the  so-called  Finite  Verb.  Besides 
this,  we  have  the  following  Noun  and  Adjective  Forms:  — 

1.  Noun  Forms,  —  Infinitive,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 

2.  Adjective  Forms,  —  Participles  (including  the  Gerundive). 

96.  The  Personal  Endings  of  the  Verb  are,  — 


Active. 

Passive. 

Sing.  I. 

-6;  -m;  -1  (Perf.  Ind.)  ; 

-r. 

2. 

-s ;    -sti    (Perf.   Ind.) ;    -to  or 
wanting  (Impv.)  ; 

-ris,  -re  ;  -re,  -tor  (Impv.). 

3- 

-t ;  -to  (Impv.)  ; 

-tur ;  -tor  (Impv.).' 

Plu.     I. 

-mus; 

-mur. 

2. 

-tis;    -stis   (Perf.  Ind.);    -te, 
-tote  (Impv.)  ; 

-mini. 

3- 

-nt ;  -erunt  (Perf.  Ind.)  ;  -nto 
(Impv.)  ; 

-ntur;  -ntor  (Impv.). 

VERB  STEMS. 

97.  Conjugation  consists  in  appending  certain  endings 
to  the  Stem.  We  distinguish  three  different  stems  in  a 
fully  inflected  verb,  — 


VERB-STEMS.  —  THE   FOUR   CONJUGATIONS.        SS 

I.     Present  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 

1.  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative, 

2.  Present  afid  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  Active  and  Pas- 

3.  The  Imperative, 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive, 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle,  the  Gerund,  and  Gerundive. 

II.    Perfect  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 

1.  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  1 

2.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  >  Active. 

3.  Perfect  Infinitive,  J 

III.    Participial  Stem,  from  which  are  formed  — 

1 .  Perfect  Participle,  \ 

2.  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  1 

3.  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  f 

4.  Perfect  Infinitive,  J 

Apparently  from  the  same  stem,  though  really  of  different  ori- 
gin, are  the  Supine,  the  Future  Active  Participle,  the  Future  Infinitive 
Active  and  Passive. 

THE   FOUR   CONJUGATIONS. 

98.  There  are  in  Latin  four  regular  Conjugations,  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  by  the  vowel  of  the  termination 
of  the  Present  Infitiitive  Active,  as  follows  :  — 


Conjugation. 

Infinitive 
Termination. 

Distinguishing 
Vowel. 

1. 

-are 

a 

II. 

-€re 

g 

III. 

-6re 

g 

IV. 

-Ire 

i 

99.  Principal  Parts.  The  Present  Indicative,  Present 
Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  the  Perfect  Participle  ^ 
constitute  the  Principal  Parts  of  a  Latin  verb,  —  so  called 
because  they  contain  the  different  stems,  from  which  the 
full  conjugation  of  the  verb  may  be  derived. 

1  Where  the  Perfect  Participle  is  not  in  use,  the  Future  Active  Participle,  if  it 
occurs,  is  given  as  one  of  the  Principal  Parts. 


S6 


INFLECTIONS. 


CONJUGATION   OF   SUM. 
100.    The  irregular  verb  sum   is   so   important  for  the 
conjugation  of  all  other  verbs  that  its  inflection  is  given 
at  the  outset. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.  Prbs.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Fut.  Partic.^ 


sum 


fui 


futurus 


SINGULAR. 

sum,  I  am^ 

es,  thou  arty 
est,  he  is ; 

eram,  /was, 
eras,  th(?7i  wast, 
erat,  he  was ; 

ero,  /  shall  be, 
eris,  thou  wilt  be, 
erit,  he  will  be ; 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

sumus,  we  are, 
estis,  you  are, 
sunt,  they  are. 

Imperfect. 

eramus,  we  were, 
eratis,  you  were, 
erant,  they  were. 

Future. 

erimus,  we  shall  be, 
eritis,  you  will  be, 
enint,  they  will  be. 


fui,  /  have  been,  I  was, 

fuisti,  thoti  hast  been,  thou  wast, 

fuit,  he  has  been,  he  was ; 


Perfect. 

fuimus,  we  have  been,  we  were, 
fuistis,  you  have  been,  you  were, 
fuerunt. 


fuere,      J 


[  they  have  been,  they  were. 


fueram,  I  had  been, 
fiieras,  thou  hadst  been, 
fuerat,  he  had  bee7i ; 


Pluperfect. 

fueramus,  we  had  been, 
fueratis,  you  had  been, 
fuerant,  they  had  been. 


Future  Perfect. 
fuero,  /  shall  have  been,  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been, 

fiieris,  thou  wilt  have  been,  fueritis,  you  will  have  been, 

fuerit,  he  will  have  been ;  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 


1  The  Perfect  Participle  is  wanting  in  sum. 


CONJUGATION  OF   SUM.  57 

SUBJUNCTIVE.^  ♦ 

Present, 
singular.  plural. 

Sim,  may  I  be,  simus,  let  us  be, 

sis,  mayst  thou  be,  sitis,  be  ye,  may  you  be^ 

sit,  let  him  be,  may  he  be ;  sint,  let  them  be. 

Imperfect. 

essem,2  /  should  be,  essemus,  ive  should  be, 

esses,2  thou  wouldst  be,  essetis,  j6>//  would  be, 

esset,2  he  would  be ;  essent,2  ^/^^y  would  be. 

Perfect. 

fuerim,  /  7nay  have  been,  fuerimus,  we  may  have  been, 

fueria,  thoti  mayst  have  been,  fueritis,  you  may  have  been, 

fuerit,  he  may  have  been ;  fuerint,  they  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect. 

fuissem,  /  should  have  been,  fuissemus,  we  should  have  been, 

fuisses,  thou  wouldst  have  been,         fuissetis,  you  would  have  been, 
fuisset,  he  would  have  been ;  fuissent,  they  would  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.  ts,  be  thou;  •       este,beye, 

Fut.    est 6,  thou  shall  be,  estote,  ye  shall  be, 

esto,  he  shall  be;  sunto,  they  shall  be, 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  esse,  to  be. 
Per/,  fuisse,  to  have  been. 
Fid.    futurus  esse,3  to  be  about  to  be.         Fut.    futurus,*  about  to  be. 

1  The  meanings  of  the  different  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  are  so  many  and  so 
varied,  particularly  in  subordinate  clauses,  that  no  attempt  can  be  made  to  give 
them  here.    For  fuller  information  the  pupil  is  referred  to  the  Syntax. 

2  For  essem,  esses,  esset,  essent,  the  forms  forem,  fores,  foret,  forent 
are  sometimes  used. 

8  For  futurus  esse,  the  form  fore  is  often  used. 
4  DQclined  like  bonus,  -a,  -um. 


58 


INFLECTIONS. 


101. 


Pres.  Ind. 
am  6 


FIRST    (OR   A-)    CONJUGATION. 
Active  Voice.  —  Amo,  /  love. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Perf.  Pass.  Partic 

amare  amavi  amatus 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

amo,  I  love, 
amas,  you  love, 
amat,  he  loves ; 

amabam,  /  was  loving,^ 
amabas,  you  were  loving, 
amabat,  he  was  loving i 

amabo,  I  shall  love, 
amabis,  you  will  love, 
amabit,  he  will  love ; 

amavi,  /  have  loved,  I  loved, 
amavisti,  you  have  loved,  you 

loved, 
amavit,  he  has  loved,   he  loved ; 


PLURAL. 

amamus,  we  love, 
amatis,  you  love, 
amant,  they  love. 

Imperfect. 

amabamus,  we  were  loving, 
amabatis,  you  were  loving, 
amabant,  they  were  loving. 

Future. 

amabimus,  we  shall  love, 
amabitis,  you  will  love, 
amabunt,  they  will  love. 

Perfect. 

amavimus,  we  have  loved,  we  loved, 
amavistis,  yotc  have  loved,  you  loved. 


amaverunt,  -ere,  they  have  loved,they 
loved. 


amaveram,  /  had  loved, 
amaveras,  you  had  loved, 
amaverat,  he  had  loved; 


Pluperfect. 

amaveramus,  we  had  loved, 
amaveratis,  you  had  loved, 
amaverant,  they  had  loved. 


Future  Perfect. 
amavero,  /  shall  have  loved,  amaverimus,  we  shall  have  loved, 

amaveris,  you  will  have  loved,        amaveritis,  you  will  have  loved, 
amaverit,  he  will  have  loved;         amaverint,  they  will  have  loved. 


1  The  Imperfect  also  means  /  loved. 


FIRST   CONJUGATION. 


59 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 


SINGULAR. 

amem,  may  I  love, 
ames,  may  you  love, 
amet,  let  him  love ; 


amarem,  /  should  love, 
amares,  you  would  love, 
amaret,  he  would  love  ; 


PLURAL. 

amemus,  lei  7/s  love, 
ametis,  inay  you  love, 
ament,  let  them  love. 


Imperfect. 


amaremus,  we  shotdd  love, 
amaretis,  you  would  love, 
amarent,  they  would  love. 


Perfect. 


amaverim,  /  may  have  loved, 
amaveris,  you  tnay  have  loved, 
amaverit,  he  tnay  have  loved; 


amaverimus,  we  may  have  loved, 
amaveritis,  you  7nay  have  loved, 
amaverint,  they  7nay  have  loved. 


Pluperfect. 


amavissem, 

amavisses,  you  would  have  loved, 

amavisset,  he  would  have  loved; 


2im.diVisseinxLS,wesho7dd  have  loved, 
amavissetis,  you  would  have  loved, 
amavissent,  they  would  have  loved. 


IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.  2X0^,  love  thou ;  amate,  love  ye. 

Fut.    amato,  thou  shall  love,  amatote, /<?  shall  love, 

amato,  he  shall  love ;  amanto,  they  shall  love. 


INFINITIVE. 
Fres.  am  are,  to  love. 
Per/,  amavisse,  to  have  loved. 
Fut.    amaturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  love. 


PARTICIPLE. 
Pres.  amans,!  loving. 

(Gen.  amantis.) 
Fut.    amaturus,  about  to  love. 


GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

Gen.   amandi,  of  lovi^ig. 

Dat.    amand6,/^r  loving. 

Ace.    amandum,  loving. 

Ace. 

amatum,  to  love. 

Abl.    amando,  by  loving. 

Abl. 

amatu,  to  love,  be  loved. 

1  For  declension  of  amans,  see  \  70.  3. 


6o 


INFLECTIONS. 


102. 


FIRST    (OR   A-)    CONJUGATION. 
Passive  Voice. — Amor,  I  am  loved. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

XE.S.  Ind. 

Pres.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind. 

amor 

amari 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

amatus  sum 

SINGULAR. 

/  am  loved. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

/  am  loved. 

PLURAL. 

amor 

amamur 

amaris 

amamini 

amatur 

Imperfect. 
I  was  loved. 

amantur 

amabar 

amabamur 

amabaris,  or  -re 

amabamini 

amabatur 

Future. 
I  shall  be  loved. 

amabantur 

amabor 

amabimur 

amaberis,  or  -re 

amabimini 

amabitur 

Perfect. 

amabuntur 

/  have  been  loved,  or  /  was  loved. 

amatus  (-a,  -um) 

sumi 

amati  (-ae,  -a)  sumua 

amatus  es 

amati  estis 

amatus  est 

Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  loved. 

amati  sunt 

amatus  eram  i 

amati  eramus 

amatus  eras 

amati  eratis 

amatus  erat 

Future  Perfect. 

amati  erant 

/  shall  have  been  loved, 

amatus  ero  ^ 

amati  erimus 

amatus  eris 

amati  eritis 

amatus  erit 

amati  erunt 

1  Fui,  fuisti,   etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sum,  es,   etc.     So  fueram, 
fueras,  etc.,  for  eram,  etc.;  fuero,  etc.,  for  ero,  etc. 


FIRST   CONJUGATION. 


6i 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
May  I  be  loved,  let  him  be  loved. 


SINGULAR. 

amer 

ameris,  or  -re 
ametur 


PLURAL. 


amemur 
amemini 
amentur 


Imperfect. 

/  should  be  loved,  he  would  be  loved. 

amarer  amaremur 

amarSris,  or  -re  amaremini 

amaretur 

Perfect. 
/  may  have  been  loved. 
amatus  sim^ 
amatus  sis 
amatus  sit 

Pluperfect. 
/  should  have  been  loved,  he  would  have  been  loved. 


amarentur 


amati  simus 
amati  sitis 
amati  sint 


amatus  essem 
amatus  esses 
amatus  esset 


amati  essemus 
amati  essetis 
amati  essent 


IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.  amare,2  ^^  Uiq^  loved  ]  amamini,  be  ye  loved. 

Fut.    amator,  thou  shall  be  loved, 

amator,  he  shall  be  loved;  amantor,  they  shall  be  loved. 


INFINITIVE. 
Pres.  amari,  to  be  loved. 
Per/,  amatus  esse,  to  have  been 

loved. 
Fut.    amatum  iri,  to  be  about  to 

be  lo7>ed. 


PARTICIPLE. 

Perfect.         amatus,  loved,  having 

been  loved. 
Gerundive,  amandus,  to  be  loved, 

deserving      to      be 

loved. 


1  Fuerim,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sim ;  so  fuissem,  etc.,  for  essem. 

2  In  actual  usage  passive  imperatives  occur  only  in  deponents  (§  112). 


62 


INFLECTIONS. 


103. 


SECOND    (OR  B-)    CONJUGATION. 
Active  Voice.  — Mone5,  I  advise. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 


Pres.  Ind.            Pres.  Inf.                Perf.  Ind. 

Perf.  Pass.  ] 

moneo 

monere              monui 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

moniti 

SINGULAR. 

/  advise. 

PLURAL. 

moneo 

monemus 

mones 

monetis 

monet 

Imperfect. 

monent 

/ 

was  advising^  or  /  advised. 

monebam 

monebamus 

monebas 

monebatis 

monebat 

Future. 
/  shall  advise. 

monebant 

monebo 

monebimus 

monebis 

monebitis 

monebit 

monebunt 

Perfect. 
/  have  advised,  or  /  advised. 


monui 

monuimus 

monuisti 

monuistis 

monuit 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  advised. 

monuerunt,  or  -§re 

monueram 

monueramus 

monueras 

monueratis 

monuerat 

Future  Perfect. 
/  shall  have  advised. 

monuerant 

monuero 

monuerimus 

monueris 

monueritis 

monuerit 

monuerint 

SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


63 


SINGULAR. 

moneam 

moneas 

moneat 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
May  I  advise^  let  him  advise. 

PLURAL. 

moneamus 
moneatis 
moneant 
Imperfect. 


monerem 

moneres 

moneret 


monuenm 

monuerls 

monuerit 


Perfect. 
/  may  have  advised. 


moneremus 

moneretis 

monerent 


monuerimus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


Pluperfect 
I  should  have  advised,  he  would  have  advised. 


monuissem 

monuisses 

monuisset 


Pres.  mone,  advise  thou  ; 
Fut.    moneto,  thou  shall  advise^ 
moneto,  he  shall  advise ; 


monuissemus 

monuissetis 

monuissent 

IMPERATIVE. 

monete,  advise  ye. 
monetote,  ye  shall  advise, 
monento,  they  shall  advise. 


INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  monere,  to  advise.  Pres.  monens,  advising. 
Perf.  monni'&se,  to  have  advised.  (Gen.  monentis.) 

Fut.    moniturus  esse,  to  be  about  F'ut.    moniturus,  about  to  advise, 
to  advise. 


GERUND. 

Gen.   monendi,  of  advising^ 
Dat.    monendib,  for  advising. 
Ace.     monendum,  advisittg., 
Abl.    monendo,  by  advising. 


SUPINE. 


Ace.  monitum,  to  advise, 

Abl.  monitu,  to  advise,  be  advised* 


64 


INFLECTIONS. 


104. 


SECOND    (OR  E-)    CONJUGATION. 
Passive  Voice.  - —  Moneor,  /  am  advised. 


Pres.  Ind. 

moneor 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf. 

moneri 


Perf.  Ind. 

monitus  sum 


SINGULAR. 

moneor 
moneris 
monetur 


monebar 
monebaris,  or  -re 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 
/  am  advised. 


Imperfect. 
I  was  advised. 


PLURAL. 

monemur 
monemini 
monentur 


monebamur 
monebamini 
monebantur 


monebatur 

Future. 
I  shall  be  advised. 
monebor  monebimur 

moneberis,  or  -re  monebimini 

monebitur  monebuntur 

Perfect. 
/  have  been  advised^  I  was  advised. 
monitus  sum  moniti  sumus 

monitus  es  moniti  estis 

monitus  est  moniti  sunt 

Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  advised. 


monitus  eram 
monitus  eras 
monitus  erat 


moniti  eramus 
moniti  eratis 
moniti  erant 


Future  Perfect. 
/  shall  have  been  advised. 


monitus  ero 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 


moniti  erimua 
moniti  eritis 
moniti  erunt 


SECOND   CONJUGATION.  65 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
May  I  be  advised,  let  him  be  advised. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

monear  '    moneamur 

monearis,  or  -re  moneamini 

moneatur  moneantur 

Imperfect. 

/  should  be  advised,  he  would  be  advised. 

monerer  moneremur 

monereris,  or  -re  moneremini 

moneretur  monerentur 

Perfect. 
/  may  have  been  advised. 

monitus  sim  moniti  simus 

monitus  sis  moniti  sitis 

monitus  sit  moniti  sint 

Pluperfect. 

/  should  have  been  advised,  he  woidd  have  been  advised. 

monitus  essem  moniti  essemus 

monitus  esses  moniti  essetis 

monitus  esset  moniti  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.   monere,  be  thou  advised ;  monemini,  be  ye  advised. 

Fut.     monetor,  thou  shall  be  ad- 
vised, 
monetor,  he  shall  be  advised.       monentor,  they  shall  be  advised. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.    moneri,  to  be  advised.  Perfect.          monitus,  advised, 

Perf.    monitus  esse,  to  have  been  having  been  advised. 

advised.  Gerundive,   monendus,  to  be  ad- 

Fut.     monitum  iri,  to  be  about  to  vised,    deserving   to 

be  advised.  be  advised. 


66 


INFLECTIONS. 


THIRD    (OR   CONSONANT-)    CONJUGATION. 
105.  Active  Voice.  —  Ktgb,  I  rule. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Perf.  Pass.  Partic 

rego  regere  rexi  rectus 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

I  rule. 

PLURAL. 

rego 

regimus 

regis 

regitis 

regit 

Imperfect. 
/  was  ruling.)  or  /  ruled. 

regunt 

regebam 

regebamus 

regebas 

« 

regebatis 

regebat 

Future. 
I  shall  rule. 

regebant 

regam 

regemus 

reges 

regetis 

reget 

Perfect. 
I  have  ruled,  or  /  ruled. 

regent 

rexi 

reximus 

rexisti 

rexistis 

rexit 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  ruled. 

rexerunt,  or  -ere 

rexeram 

rexeramus 

rexeras 

rexeratis 

rexerat 

Future  Perfect. 
/  shall  have  ruled. 

rexerant 

rexero 

rexerimus 

rexeris 

rexeritis 

rexerit 

rexerint 

THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


67 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

May  I  rule,  let  hitn  rule. 

SINGULAR. 

plural. 

regam 

regas 

regat 

Imperfect. 

regamus 

regatis 

regant 

/  should  rule,  he  would  rtde. 

regerem 

regeres 

regeret 

Perfect. 
/  may  have  rtded. 

regeremus 

regeretis 

regerent 

rexerim 

rexerimus 

rexeris 

rexeritis 

rexerit 

rexerint 

Pluperfect. 

/  should  have  ruled,  he  would  have  ruled. 

rexissem  rexissemus 

rexisses  rexissetis 

rexisset  rexissent 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.   rege,  rule  thou  ;  regite,  ride  ye. 

Fut.     regito,  thou  shall  rule,  regitote,  ye  shall  rule, 

regito,  he  shall  rule ;  regunto,  they  shall  rule. 


INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

regere,  to  rule. 

Pres. 

regens,  ruling. 

Per/. 

rexisse,  to  have  ruled. 

(Gen.  regentis.) 

Fut. 

recturus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  rule. 

Fut. 

recturus,  about  to  rule. 

GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

Gen. 

regendi,  of  ruling. 

Dat. 

regendo,  for  ruling, 

Ace. 

regendum,  ruling. 

Ace. 

rectum,  to  rule, 

Abl. 

regendo,  by  ruling. 

Abl. 

rectu,  to  ride,  be  ruled. 

68 


INFLECTIONS. 


THIRD    (OR   CONSONANT-)    CONJUGATION. 
106.  Passive  Voice.  —  Regor,  /  am  ruled. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind. 

regor 

regi 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

rectus  sum 

SINGULAR. 

I  am  ruled. 

PLURAL. 

regor 

regimur 

regeris 

regimini 

regitur 

Imperfect. 
I  was  r  tiled. 

reguntur 

regebar 

regebamur 

regebaris,  or  - 

re 

regebamini 

regebatur 

Future. 
I  shall  be  ruled. 

regebantur 

regar 

regemur 

regeris,  or  -re 

regemini 

regetur 

Perfect. 

regentur 

/  kave  been  ruled,  or  /  was  ruled. 

rectus  sum 

recti  sumus 

rectus  es 

recti  estis 

rectus  est 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  been  ruled. 

recti  sunt 

rectus  eram 

recti  eramus 

rectus  eras 

recti  eratis 

rectus  erat 

Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  have  been  ruled. 

recti  erant 

rectus  ero 

recti  erimuB 

rectus  eris 

recti  eritis 

rectus  erit 

recti  erunt 

THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


69 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 
May  I  be  ruled,  let  him  be  ruled. 


SINGULAR. 

regar 

regaris,  or  -re 
regatur 


PLURAL. 

regamur 

regamini 

regantur 


MPERFECT. 


/  should  be  ruled,  he  would  be  ruled. 


regerer 


regeretuf 


rectus  sim 
rectus  sis 
rectus  sit 


Perfect. 
/  may  have  been  ruled. 


regeremur 
regeremini 
resferentur 


recti  simus 
recti  sitis 
recti  sint 


Pluperfect. 
/  should  have  been  ruled,  he  would  have  been  ruled. 


rectus  essem 
rectus  esses 
rectus  esset 


recti  essemus 
recti  essetis 
recti  essent 


IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.    vegere,  be  thou  ruled ;  regimini,  be  ye  ruled. 

Fut.     regit  or,  thou  shall  be  rided, 

regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled;       reguntor,  they  shall  be  ruled. 


INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.   regi,  to  be  ruled.  Perfect.         rectus,  ruled,  having 

Perf.   rectus   esse,   to  have  been  been  ruled. 

rtded.  Gerundive,   regendus,  to  be  ruled^ 

Fut.     rectum  iri,  to  be  about  to  deserving       to     be 

be  ruled.  ruled.    . 


70 


INFLECTIONS. 


FOURTH    (OR  I-)    CONJUGATION. 
107.  Active  Voice.  —  Audio,  /  hear. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 


Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.   Inf.                  Perf.  Ind. 

Perf.  Pass.  Partic. 

audio 

audire                 audivi 

auditus 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

/  hear. 

plural. 

audio 

audimus 

audis 

auditis 

audit 

Imperfect. 

audiunt 

I  was  hearings  or  I  heard. 

audiebam 

audiebamus 

audiebas 

* 

audiebatis 

audiebat 

Future. 
/  shall  hear. 

audiebant 

audiam 

audiemus 

audies 

audietis 

audiet 

Perfect. 

audient 

I  have  heard,  or  I  heard. 

audfvi 

audivimus 

audivisti 

audi  vis  tis 

audivit 

Pluperfect. 
I  had  heard. 

au diver unt,  or  -ere 

audiveram 

audiveramus 

audiveras 

audiveratis 

audiverat 

Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  have  heard. 

audiverant 

audivero 

audiverimus 

audiveris 

audiveritis 

audiverit 

audlverint 

FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


71 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

May  I  hear,  let  him  hear. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

audiam 

audiamus 

au(^ias 

audiatis 

audiat 

audiant 

Imperfect. 

/  should  hear,  he  would  hear. 

audirem 

audiremus 

audires 

audiretis 

audiret 

audirent 

Perfect. 

/  may  have  heard. 

audiverim 

audiverimus 

audiveris 

audiveritis 

audlverit 

audiverint 

Pluperfect. 
/  should  have  heard,  he  would  have  heard. 
audlvissem  audivissemus 

audivisses  audivissetis 

audivisset  audivissent 

IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.   ZMdi,  hear  thou  ;  B.udite,  hear  ye. 

Put.     audits,  thou  shall  hear,  auditote,  ye  shall  hear, 

audits,  he  shall  hear  ;  audiunto,  they  shall  hear. 


INFINITIVE. 
Pres.   audire,  to  hear. 
Perf.  audivisse,  to  have  heard. 
Put. 

to  hear. 


PARTICIPLE. 
Pres.  audiens,  hearing. 

(Gen.  audientis.) 
Put.   auditurus,  about  to  hear. 


GERUND. 
Gen.    audiendi,  of  hearing, 
Dat.    audiend6,/i?r  hearing, 
Ace.     audiendum,  hearing, 
Abl.     audiendo,  by  hearing. 


Ace. 
Abl. 


SUPINE. 


audi  turn,  to  hear. 


72 


INFLECTIONS. 


108. 


FOURTH    (OR  i-)    CONJUGATION. 
Passive  Voice.  —  Audior,  /  a^n  heard. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind. 

audior 

audiri 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

auditus  sum 

SINGULAR. 

/  am  heard. 

plural. 

audior 

audimur 

audiris 

audimini 

auditur 

Imperfect. 
/  was  heard. 

audiuntur 

audiebar 

audiebamur 

audiebaris,  or 

-re 

audiebamini 

audiebatur 

• 
Future. 
/  shall  be  heard. 

audiebantur 

audiar 

audiemur 

audieris,  or  -re 

audiemini 

audietur 

Perfect. 

audientur 

/  have  been  heard,  or  /  was  heard. 

auditus  sum 

audlti  sumus 

auditus  es 

audit!  estis 

auditus  est 

Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  heard. 

audlti  sunt 

auditus  eram 

audlti  eramus 

auditus  eras 

audlti  eratis 

auditus  erat 

Future  Perfect. 
/  shall  have  been  heard. 

audlti  erant 

auditus  ero 

audit!  erimus 

auditus  eris 

audlti  eritis 

auditus  erit 

audlti  erunt 

FOURTH   CONJUGATION.  73 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present, 
May  I  be  heard,  let  him  be  heard. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

audiar  audiamur 

audiaris,  or  -re  audiamini 

audiatur  audiantur 

Imperfect. 

/  should  be  heard,  he  would  be  heard. 

audirer  audiremur 

audireris,  or  -re  audiremini 

audiretur  audirentur 

Perfect. 

/  may  have  been  heard. 

auditus  Sim  auditi  simus 

auditus  sis  auditi  sitis 

auditus  sit  auditi  sint 

Pluperfect. 
r  should  have  been  heard,  he  would  have  bee  ft  heard. 

auditus  essem  auditi  essemus 

auditus  esses  auditi  essetis 

auditus  esset  auditi  essent 

IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.  audire,  be  thou  heard]  audimini,  be  ye  heard. 

Fut.    auditor,  thou  shall  be  heard, 

auditor,  he  shall  be  heard-,         audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard. 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.   audiri,  to  be  heard.  Perfect.  auditus,  heard. 

Per/,   auditus  esse,  to  have  been  having  been  heard. 

heard.  Gerundive,   audiendus,  to  be 
Fut.    audltum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  heard,  deserving 

heard.  to  be  heard. 


74 


INFLECTIONS. 


VERBS   IN  -lO   OF   THE   THIRD   CONJUGATION. 

109.  I.  Verbs  in  -io  of  the  Third  Conjugation  take  the 
endings  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  wherever  the  latter 
endings  have  two  successive  vowels.  This  occurs  only  in 
the  Present  System. 

2.    Here  belong  — 

a)  capio,  to  take ;  cupio,  to  desire ;  facio,  to  make ;  f  odio,  to 
dig;  fugio,  to  flee;  jacio,  to  throw;  pario,  to  bear;  quatio, 
to  shake ;  rapio,  to  seize ;  sapio,  to  taste. 

b)  Compounds  of  lacio  and  specie  (both  ante-classical)  ;  as, 
allicio,  entice ;  conspicio,  behold. 

c)  The  deponents  gradior,  to  go ;  morior,  to  die ;  patior,  to 
suffer. 


110. 

Pres.  Ind. 
capio, 


Active  Voice.  — Capio,  I  take. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Perf.  Pass.  Partic. 

capere,  cepT,  captus. 


I 


.     SINGULAR. 

capi5,  capis,  capit ; 
capiebam,  -iebas,  -iebat ; 
capiam,  -ies,  -iet ; 
cepT,  -istl,  -it ; 
ceperam,  -eras,  -erat; 
cepero,  -eris,  -erit ; 


INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


PLURAL. 

capimus,  capitis,  capiunt. 

Imperfect. 

capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant. 

Future. 

capiemus,  -ietis,  -ient. 

Perfect. 

cepimus,  -istis,  -erunt  or  -ere. 

Pluperfect. 

ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

Future  Perfect. 

ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 


VERBS  IN  -10  OF  THE  THIRD   CONJUGATION.    75 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR. 

PRESENT.                       PLURAL. 

capiam,  -ias,  -iat ; 

capiarnus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

Imperfect. 

caperem,  -eres,  -eret ; 

caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

Perfect. 

ceperim,  -eris,  -erit ; 

ceperlmus,  -erltis,  -erint. 

Pluperfect. 

cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ; 

cepisse mus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.   cape; 

capite. 

Fut.     capito, 

capitate, 

capita ; 

capiunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.    capere. 

.Pres.   capiens. 

Perf.   cepisse. 

Fut.     capturus  esse. 

Fut.     capturus. 

GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

Gen.    capiendT, 

Dat.     capiend5, 

Ace.     capiendum, 

Ace.     captum, 

Abl.     capiendo. 

Abl.     captu. 

111.  Passive  Voice.  —  Capior,  I atn  taken. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
Pres.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Pkrf.  Ind. 

capior,  capT,  captus  sum. 


singular. 
capior,  caperis,  capitur ; 


INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 


PLURAL. 

capimur,  capimini,  capiuntur. 

Imperfect. 
capiebar,  -iebaris,  -iebatur ;  capiebamur,  -iebamini,  -iebantur 

Future. 
capiar,  -ieris,  -ietur ;  capiemur,  -iemini,  -ientur. 


76 


INFLECTIONS. 


SINGULAR. 

captus  sum,  es,  est ; 
captus  eram,  eras,  erat ; 
captus  ero,  eris,  erit ; 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur ; 

caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur ; 

captus  sim,  sTs,  sit ;       ^ 

captus  essem,  esses,  esset ; 

Pres.    capere ; 
Fut.     capitor, 
capitor ; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.    capi. 
Perf.   captus  esse. 
Fut.     captum  irl. 


PERFECT.  ^^^^^^^ 

capti  sumus,  estis,  sunt. 

Pluperfect. 

capti  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

Future  Perfect. 

capti  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

capiamur,  -iamini,  -iantur. 

Imperfect. 

caperemur,  -ereminl,  -erentur. 

Perfect. 

capti  simus,  sTtis,  sint. 

Pluperfect. 

capti  essemus,  essetis,  essent. 

IMPERATIVE. 

capimini. 

capiuntor. 
PARTICIPLE. 

Perfect.  captus. 

Gerundive,   capiendus. 


DEPONENT   VERBS. 

112.    Deponent  Verbs  have  in  the  main  Passive  forms 
with  Active  or  Neuter  meaning.     But  — 

a.  They  have  the  following  Active  forms :  Future  Infinitive, 
Present  and  Future  Participles,  Gerund,  and  Supine. 

b.  They  have  the  following  Passive  meanings :  always  in  the 
Gerundive,  and  sometimes  in  the  Perfect  Passive  Participle ; 
as, — 

sequendus,  to  be  followed;  adeptus,  attained. 


DEPONENT  VERBS. 


77 


113.    Paradigms  of  Deponent  Verbs  are  — 

I.  Conj.         miror,  mirari,  miratus  sum,  admire, 
II.  Conj.        vereor,  vereri,  veritus  sum,y^^r. 

III.  Conj.         sequor,  sequi,  secutus  snxn.,  follow. 

IV.  Conj.         largior,  largiri,  largitus  sum,  ^/z/^. 
III.   (in  -ior)  patior,  pati,  passus  sum,  suffer. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV.             Ill  (in -ior), 

Pres. 

mIror 

vereor 

sequor 

largior 

patior 

mlraris 

vereris 

sequeris 

largiris 

pateris 

miratur 

veretur 

sequitur 

largitur 

patitur 

miramur 

veremur 

sequimur 

larglmur 

patimur 

mlramini 

veremini 

sequimini 

largimini 

patimini 

mirantur 

verentur 

sequuntur 

largiuntur 

patiuntur 

Imp/. 

mlrabar 

verebar 

sequebar 

largiebar 

patiebar 

Fut. 

mlrabor 

verebor 

sequar 

largiar 

patiar 

Per/. 

miratus  sum 

veritus  sum 

secutus  sum 

largltus  sum 

passus  sum 

Plup. 

miratus  eram 

veritus  eram 

secutus  eram 

largltus  eram 

passus  eram 

P.P. 

miratus  ero 

veritus  ero 

secutus  ero 

largltus  ero 

passus  ero 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

mirer 

verear 

sequar 

largiar 

patiar 

Imp/ 

mirarer 

vererer 

sequerer 

larglrer 

paterer 

Per/ 

miratus  sim 

veritus  sim 

secutus  sim 

largltus  sim 

passus  sim 

Plup. 

miratus  essem 

veritus  essem 

secutus  essem 

largltus  essem 

passus  essem 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

mirare,  etc. 

verere,  etc. 

sequere,  etc. 

largire,  etc. 

patere.  etc. 

Fut. 

mirator,  etc. 

veretor,  etc. 

sequitor,  etc. 

largltor,  etc. 

patitor,  etc. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres. 

mirarl 

vereri 

sequi 

larglrl 

pati 

Per/ 

miratus  esse 

veritus  esse 

secutus  esse 

largltus  esse 

passus  esse 

Fut. 

miraturus  esse 

veriturus  esse 

;  secuturus  esse 

larglturus  esse 

passurus  esse 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. 

mirans 

verens 

sequens 

largiens 

patiens 

Fut. 

miraturus 

veriturus 

secuturus 

larglturus 

passurus 

Per/ 

miratus 

veritus 

secutus 

largltus 

passus 

Ger. 

mirandus 

verendus 

sequendus 
GERUND. 

largiendus 

patiendus 

mirandl 

verendi 

sequendl 

largiendi 

patiendl 

mirando,  etc. 

verendo,  etc. 

sequendo,  etc. 
SUPINE. 

laigiendo,  etc. 

patiend5,  etc. 

miratum,  -tu 

veritum,  -tu 

secutum,  -tu 

largltum,  -tu 

passum,  -sS 

78  INFLECTIONS. 


SEMI-DEPONENTS. 

114.  I.  Semi-Deponents  are  verbs  which  have  the  Pres- 
ent System  in  the  Active  Voice,  but  the  Perfect  System  in 
the  Passive  without  change  of  meaning.     Here  belong  — 

audeo,    audere,    ausus  sum,  to  dare, 
gaudeo,  gaudere,  gavisus  sum,  to  rejoice. 
soleo,      solere,      solitus  sum,  to  be  wont. 
fido,        fidere,      fisus  sum,  to  trust. 

2.  The  following  verbs  have  a  Perfect  Passive  Participle  with 
Active  meaning :  — 

adolesco,  grow  up ;  adultus,  having  grown  up. 

cenare,  dine ;  cenatus,  having  dined. 

pla-cere,  please ;  placitus,  having  pleased,  agreeable. 

prandere,  lunch ;  pransus,  having  lunched. 

potare,  drink ;  potus,  having  drunk. 

jurare,  swear ;  juratus,  having  sworn. 

a.   Juratus  is  used  in  a  passive  sense  also. 

3.  Reverter  and  devertor  both  regularly  form  their  Perfect  in 
the  Active  Voice ;  viz.  — 

reverter,    revert!  (Inf.),    reverti  (Perf.),  to  return. 
devertor,  deverti  (Inf.),    deverti  (Perf.),  to  turn  aside. 

PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATION. 

115.  There  are  two  Periphrastic  Conjugations, — the 
Active  and  the  Passive.  The  Active  is  formed  by  com- 
bining the  Future  Active  Participle  with  the  auxiliary  sum, 
the  Passive  by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  the  same 
auxiUary. 

Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  amattirus  (-a,  -um)  gum,  /  am  about  to  love. 

Imp.  amattirus  eram,  /  was  about  to  love. 

Put.  amattirus  ero,  /  shall  be  about  to  love. 

Perf.  amattirus  fui,  /  have  been  {was)  about  to  love. 

Plup.  amaturus  fueram,  /  had  been  about  to  love. 

Put.  P.  amaturus  fuero,  I  shall  have  been  about  to  love. 


PECULIARITIES  OF   CONJUGATION. 


79 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  amaturus  sim,  may  I  be  about  to  love. 

Imp.  amaturus  essem,  I  should  be  about  to  love. 

Per/.  amaturus  fuerim,  /  may  have  been  about  to  love. 

Plup.  amattirus  fuissem,  /  should  have  been  about  to  love. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.      amaturus  esse,  to  be  about  to  love. 

Per/.      amaturus  fuisse,  to  have  been  about  to  love. 

Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.      amandus  (-a,  -um)  sum,  /  a7n  to  be  loved,  must  be  loved. 

Imp.       amandus  eram,  /  was  to  be  loved. 

Put.        amandus  ero,  /  shall  deserve  to  be  loved. 

Per/.      amandus  fui,  /  was  to  be  loved. 

Plup.      amandus  fueram,  /  had  deserved  to  be  loved. 

Put.  P.  amandus  fuero,  /  shall  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres.  amandus  sim,  may  I  deserve  to  be  loved. 

Imp.  amandus  essem,  /  should  deserve  to  be  loved. 

Per/.  amandus  fuerim,  /  may  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 

Plup.  amandus  fuissem,  /  should  have  deserved  to  be  loved. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.      amandus  esse,  to  deserve  to  be  loved. 

Per/,      amandus  fuisse,  to  have  dese?-ved  to  be  loved. 


PECULIARITIES   OF   CONJUGATION. 

116.  I.  Perfects  in  -avi,  -evi,  and  -ivi,  with  the  forms  derived 
from  them,  often  drop  the  ve  or  vi  before  endings  beginning  with  r  or 
s.  So  also  novi  (from  nosco)  and  the  compounds  of  movi  (from 
moveo).     Thus:  — 


amavisti 

amasti 

delevisti 

delesti 

amavisse 

amasse 

delevisse 

delesse 

amaverunt 

amarunt 

deleverunt 

delerunt 

amaverim 

amarim 

deleverim 

delerim 

amaveram 

amaram 

deleveram 

deleram 

amaver5 

amaro 

delevera 

delero 

novisti 

nosti 

noverim 

norim 

n5visse 

nosse 

n5veram 

noram 

audivisti 

audlsti 

audivisse 

audisse 

8o  INFLECTIONS. 


2.  In  the  Gerund  and  Gerundive  of  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conju- 
gations, the  endings  -undus,  -undi,  often  occur  instead  of  -endus  and 
-endi,  as  faciundus,  faciundi. 

3.  Dico,  duco,  facio,  form  the  Imperatives,  die,  due,  fae.  But 
compounds  of  faeio  form  the  Imperative  in  -fiee,  as  eonfiee.  Com- 
pounds of  dieo,  dueo,  accent  the  ultima;  as,  e due,  edic. 

4.  Archaic  and  Poetic  forms  :  — 

a.  The  ending  -ier  in  the  Present  Infinitive  Passive ;  as, 
amarier,  monerier,  dieier,  for  amari,  moneri,  diei. 

b.  The  ending  -ibam  for  -iebam  in  Imperfects  of  the  Fourth 
Conjugation,  and  -ibo  for  -iam  in  Futures ;  as,  seibam, 
seibo,  for  seiebam,  seiam. 

c.  Instead  of  the  fuller  forms,  in  such  words  as  dixisti,  serip- 
sistis,  surrexisse,  we  sometimes  find  dixti,  seripstis, 
surrexe,  etc. 

d.  The  endings  -im,  -is,  etc,  (for  -am,  -as,  etc.')  occur  in  a  few 
Subjunctive  forms  ;  as,  edim  {eat)^  duint,  perduint. 

5.  In  the  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive,  the  auxiliary 
esse  is  often  omitted ;  as,  aeturum  for  aeturum  esse ;  ejeetus  for 
ejeetus  esse. 

FORMATION    OF   THE   VERB   STEMS. 
Formation  of  the  Present  Stem. 

117.  Many  verbs  employ  the  simple  Verb  Stem  for  the 
Present  Stem  ;  ^  as,  dleere,  amare,  monere,  audire.  Others 
modify  the  Verb  Stem  to  form  the  Present,  as  follows :  — 

1.  By  appending  the  vowels,  a,  e,  1;  as, — 

juvare.    Present  Stem   juva-    (Verb  Stem  juv-). 
augere,         "  "       auge-    (     "         "     aug-). 

vineire,        "  "        vinel-  (     "         "     vine-). 

2.  By  adding  i,  as  eapio,  Present  Stem  eapi-  (Verb  Stem  cap-). 

3.  By  the  insertion  of  n  (m  before  labial-mutes)  before  the  final  con- 
sonant of  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  fundo  (Stem  fud-),  rumpo  (Stem  rup-) . 

4.  By  appending  -n  to  the  Verb  Stem ;  as,  — 

cern-6  pell-6  (for  pel-no). 

1  Strictly  speaking,  the  Present  Stem  always  ends  in  a  Thematic  Vowel  (§  or 
6) ;  as,  dic-§-,  dic-o- ;  ania-§-,  ama-o-.  But  the  multitude  of  phonetic  changes 
involved  prevents  a  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  here.  See  the  author's  Latin 
Language. 


FORMATION  OF  THE  VERB   STEMS.  8 1 

5.  By  appending  t  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as, — 

flect-6. 

6.  By  appending  sc  to  the  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

cresc-6.  scisc-6. 

7.  By  Reduplication,  that  is,  by  prefixing  the  initial  consonant  of 
the  Verb  Stem  with  i ;  as,  — 

gi-gii-6  (root  gen-),  si-st-6  (root  sta-). 

Formation  of  the  Perfect  Stem. 

118.   The  Perfect  Stem  is  formed  from  the  Verb  Stem  ^ 

1.  By  adding  v  (in  case  of  Vowel  Stems)  ;  as, — 

amav-i,  delev-I,  audiv-i. 

2.  By  adding  u  (in  case  of  some  Consonant  Stems)  ;  as,  — 

strepu-i,  genu-i,  alu-i. 

3.  By  adding  s  (in  case  of  most  Consonant  Stems)  ;  as,  — 

oarp-6,  Perfect  carps-i. 
scrib-6,      "         scrips-i  (for  scrib-si). 
rid-eo,        "         ris-i        (for  rid-si) . 
sent-io,       "         sens-i     (for  sent-si) . 
dIc-6,         "         dix-I       {i.e.  dic-si). 

a.  Note  that  before  the  ending  -si  a  Dental  Mute  (t,  d)  is 
lost ;  a  Guttural  Mute  (c,  g)  unites  with  s  to  form  x ;  while 
the  Labial  b  is  changed  to  p. 

4.  Without  addition.     Of  this  formation  there  are  three  types  :  — 

a)  The  Verb  Stem  is  reduplicated  by  prefixing  the  initial  con- 
sonant with  the  following  vowel  or  e ;  as,  — 

curro,  Perfect  ou-curri. 
posco,  "  po-posci. 
pello,        "       pe-puli. 

Note  i.  — Compounds,  with  the  exception  of  do,  sto,  sisto,  disco,  posco, 
omit  the  reduplication.    Thus :  com-puli,  but  re-poposci. 

Note  2.  —  Verbs  beginning  with  sp  or  st  retain  both  consonants  in  the  redu- 
plication, but  drop  s  from  the  stem  ;  as,  spondeo,  spo-pondi ;  sto,  steti. 

b)  The  short  vowel  of  the  Verb  Stem  is  lengthened ;  as,  lego, 
leg!  ;  ago,  egi.     Note  that  S  by  this  process  becomes  e, 

c)  The  vowel  of  the  Verb  Stem  is  unchanged  ;  as,  verto,  verti ; 
minuo,  minui. 


82  INFLECTIONS. 


Formation  of  the  Participial  Stem. 

119.    The  Perfect    Passive    Participle,  from    which  the 
Participial  Stem  is  derived  by  dropping  -us,  is  formed  :  — 

I .    By  adding  -tus  (sometimes  to  the  Present  Stem,  sometimes  to 
the  Verb  Stem)  ;   as,  — 

ama-re,  Participle  ama-tus. 


dele-re. 

a 

dele-tus. 

audi-re, 

a 

audi-tus. 

leg-ere, 

li 

lec-tus. 

scrib-ere. 

a 

scrip-tus. 

senti-re. 

a 

sen-sus  (for  sent-tus). 

caed-ere. 

u 

cae-sus  (for  caed-tus) . 

a.  Note  that  g,  before  t,  becomes  c   (see  §8,5);  b  becomes  p ;  while 
dt  or  tt  becomes  ss,  which  is  then  often  simpHfied  to  S  (§  8,  2). 

2.  After  the  analogy  of  Participles  like  sensus  and  caesus,  where 
-sus  arises  by  phonetic  change,  -sus  for  -tus  is  added  to  other  Verb 
Stems ;  as,  — 

lab-i.    Participle  lap-sus. 
fig-ere,         "         fi-xus. 

a.  The  same  consonant  changes  occur  in  appending  this  ending  -sus 
to  the  stem  as  in  the  case  of  the  Perfect  ending  -si  (see  §  118,  3,  a). 

3.  A  few  Verbs- form  the  Participle  in  -itus  ;  as,  — 

doma-re,  dom  itus. 

mone-re,  mon-itus. 

4.  The  Future  Active  Participle  is  usually  identical  in  its  stem  with 
the  Perfect  Passive  Participle ;  as,  ama-tus,  amaturus ;  moni-tus, 
moniturus.     But  — 

juva-re,  Perf.  Partic.  jutus,  has  Fut.  Act.  Partic.  juvaturus.i 


lava-re, 

u 

lautus. 

U              i 

i           a 

lavaturus. 

•   par-ere. 

ti 

partus, 

a          i 

i            u 

pariturus. 

ru-ere. 

u 

-rutus. 

U              i 

i           ii 

ruiturus. 

seoa-re. 

a 

sectus. 

U             i 

i           a 

secaturus. 

fru-i, 

a 

-fructus, 

a          i 

i           a 

f  ruiturus. 

mor-i, 

a 

a 

mortuus, 

u 

a         i 

i            u 

moriturus. 

orl-ri, 

a 

a 

ortus. 

a 

U              ( 

i            u 

oriturus. 

1  But  the  compounds  of  juvo  sometimes  have  -juturus ;  as,  adjuturus. 


LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


83 


.  LIST   OF   THE   MOST   IMPORTANT  VERBS,  WITH 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

First  (A-)  Conjugation. 
120.    I.    Perfect  in  -VI. 
amo  amare  amavi  amatus  love 

All  regular  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation  follow  this  model. 


poto 

potare 

potavi 

potus  (§114,  2) 

drink 

II.   Perfect  in  - 

ui. 

crepo 

crepare 

crepuT 

crepiturus 

rattle 

cubo 

cubare 

cubui 

cubiturus 

lie  down 

domo 

domare 

do  mm 

domitus 

tame 

fried 

fricare 

fricui 

frictus  and  fricatus 

rub 

mico 

micare 

micul 

glitter 

dimico 

dimicare 

dimicavi 

dimicatum  (est)i 

fight 

ex-plic5 

explicare 

explicavi 

(-uT) 

explicatus  (-itus) 

mifold 

im-plic5 

implicare 

:  implicavi 

(-uT) 

implicatus  (-itus) 

entwine 

seco 

secare 

secuT 

sectus 

cut 

sono 

sonare 

sonuT 

sonata  rus 

sound 

tono 

tonare 

tonuT 

thunder 

veto 

vetare 

vetuT 

vetitus 

forbid 

III.   Perfect  in 

-i  with  Lengthening  of  the  Stem  Vow] 

juvo 

juvare 

juvi 

jutus 

help 

lav5 

lavare 

lavl 

lautus 

wash 

IV.   Perfect  Reduplicated. 

sta 

stare 

steti 

staturus 

V.   Deponents. 

These  are  all  regular,  and  follow  miror^  mirdri^  7nirdtus  sum. 

Second  (^-)  Conjugation. 


121.    I. 

Perfect  in  -VI. 

dele5 

delere        delevi 

deletus 

destroy 

flea 

flere          flevi 

fletus 

weep,  lament 

com-plea  2 

complere  complevi 

completus 

fill  up 

aboleo 

abolere      abolevi 

abolitus 

destroy 

deas 

ciere          cTvi 

citus 

set  in  motion 

1  Used  only  impersonally.  2  §©  impUo,  expleo. 

3  Compounds  follow  the  Fourth  Conjugation  :  accio,  acclre,  etc. 


84 


INFLECTIONS. 


II.   Perfect  in  -UI. 

a.  Type  -eo,  -ere,  -ui,  -itus. 

arceo  arcere 

coerceo       coercere 

exerceo        exercere 
caleo  calere 


careo 

doleo 

habeo 
debe5 
praebeo 

jace5 

mere5 

mone5 

no  ceo 

pare5 

placed 

tace5 

terre5 

valeo 


carere 

dolere 

habere 

debere 

praebere 

j ace re 

merere 

monere 

nocere 

parere 

placere 

tacere 

terrere 

valere 


arcui 

coercui 

exercui 

calul 

carui 

dolui 

habui 

debui 

praebui 

jacuT 

menii 

monul 

nocui 

paruT 

placui 

tacul 

terrui 

valuT 


coercitus 

exercitus 

caliturus 

cariturus 

doliturus 

habitus 

debitus 

praebitus 

jaciturus 

meritus 

monitus 

nocitum  (est) 

pariturus 

placiturus 

taci  turns 

territus 

valiturus 


keep  off 

hold  in  check 

practise 

be  warm 

be  without 

grieve 

have 

owe 

offer 

lie 

earn. 

advise 

injure 

obey 

please 

be  silent 

frighten 

be  strong 


deserve 


Note  i.  —  The  following  lack  the  Participial  Stem  :  — 


egeo 

emineo 

flore5 

horred 

lateo 

niteo 

oleo 

palle5 

pate5 

rubeo 

siled 

splendeo 

studeo 

stuped 

timeo 

torpeo 

vigeo 

vireo 


egere 

eminere 

florere 

horrere 

latere 

nitere 

olere 

pall  ere 

patere 

rubere 

silere 

splendere 

studere 

stupere 

timere 

torpere 

vigere 

virere 


egui 

eminuT  *  - 

florui 

horruT 

latui 

nitui 

olui 

pallul 

patuT 

rubui 

siluT 

splendui 

studui 

stupui 

timui 

torpui 

vigui 

virui 

and  others. 


want 

stand  forth 

bloom 

bristle 

hirk 

gleam 

smell 

be  pale 

lie  open 

be  red 

be  silent 

gleam 

study 

be  amazed 

fear 

be  dull 

flourish 

be  green 


LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


85 


Note  2.  —  The  following  are  used  only  in  the  Present 

aveo  avere  

frigeo  frige  re  


immineo 

imminere 

maereo 

maerere 

polled 

pollere 

System :  — 
wish 
be  cold 
overhang 
mourn 
be  strong 


and  others. 
b.   Type  -eo,  -ere,  -ui,  -tus  (-sus). 


censeo 

censere 

censul 

census 

estimate 

doceo 

docere 

docuT 

doctus 

teach 

misceo 

miscere 

miscui 

mixtus 

mix 

teneo 

tenere 

tenui 

hold 

So  contineo  and  sustineo  . 

;  but  — 

retineo 

retinere 

retinui 

retentus 

retain 

obtineo 

obtinere 

obtinui 

obtentus 

maintain 

torreo 

torrere 

torrui 

tostus 

bake 

III.   Perfect  in  -SI. 

augeo 

augere 

auxT 

auctus 

increase 

torqueo 

torquere 

tors! 

tortus 

twist 

indulged 

indulge  re 

indulsi 

indulge 

luce5 

luce  re 

luxi 

be  light 

lugea 

lugere 

luxT 

mourn 

jubeo 

jubere 

jussi 

jussus 

order 

per-mulceo 

permulcere 

permulsi 

permulsus 

soothe 

rideo 

ride  re 

rIsT 

risum  (est) 

laugh 

suadeo 

suadere 

suasi 

suasum  (est) 

advise 

abs-tergeo 

abstergere 

abstersi 

abstersus 

wipe  off 

arde5 

ardere 

arsi 

arsurus 

burn 

haereo 

haerere 

haesi 

haesurus 

stick 

maneo 

manere 

raansi 

mansurus 

stay 

algeo 

algere 

alsi 

be  cold 

fulgeo 

fulgere 

fulsi 

gleam 

urged 

urgere 

ursi 

press 

IV.   Perfect  in  -I  with  Reduplication. 

mordeo 

mordere 

momordi 

morsus 

bite 

spondeo 

spondere 

spopondi 

spdnsus 

pro7nise 

tonded 

tondere 

totondi 

tdnsus 

shear 

pended 

pendere 

pependi 

hang 

86 


INFLECTIONS. 


V. 

Perfect  in  -I 

WITH  Lengthening  of  Stem 

Vowel. 

caveo 

cave re 

cavi 

cauturus 

take  care 

faveo 

favere 

favi 

fauturus 

favor 

fovea 

fovere 

fovi 

fatus 

cherish 

moved 

movere 

mo  VI 

motus 

move 

pave5 

pavere 

pavl 

fear 

sede5 

sedere 

sedi 

sessurus 

sit 

vide5 

videre 

vidi 

visus 

see 

voveo 

vovere 

VOVl 

votus 

vow 

VI.   Perfect  in  -1  without  either  Reduplication  or  Length- 
ening OF  Stem  Vowel. 


fervea 

fervere 

(fervi, 

ferbui) 

boil 

prandea 

prandere 

prandi 

pransus  (§  114,  2 

)    lunch 

stridea 

stride  re 

stridi 

creak 

VIL   Deponents. 

liceor 

liceri 

licitus  sum 

bid 

polliceor 

polliceri 

pollicitus  sum 

promist^ 

mereor 

merer! 

meritus  sum 

earn 

misereor 

misereri 

miseritus  sum 

pity 

vereor 

vereri 

veritus  sum 

fear 

fateor 

fateri 

fassus  sum 

confess 

canfiteor 

canfiterl 

confessus  sum 

confess 

reor 

reri 

ratus  sum 

think 

medeor 

mederl 

V 

heal 

tueor 

tueri 

protect 

Third  (Consonant)  Conjugation. 
122.   L    Verbs  with  Present  Stem  ending  in  a  Consonant. 
1.    Perfect  in  -si. 


a.    Type 

-6,  -gre,  -SI, 

-tus. 

carpa 

carpere 

carpsi 

carptus 

pluck 

sculpa 

sculpere 

sculps! 

sculptus 

chisel 

repo 

repere 

reps! 

creep 

serpa 

serpere 

serps! 

crawl 

scrlba 

scribere 

scrips! 

scriptus 

write 

nuba 

nubere 

nupsi 

nupta  (woman  only) 

marry 

rega 

regere 

rex! 

rectus 

govern 

LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


87 


tego 

tegere 

texT 

tectus 

cover 

af-flTg5 

affllgere 

affllxi 

afflictus 

shatter          ^ 

dico 

dicere 

dixi 

dictus 

say 

duco 

ducere 

duxT 

ductus 

lead 

coqu5 

coquere 

COXl 

coctus 

cook 

traho 

trahere 

traxi 

tfactus 

draw 

veho 

vehere 

vexl 

vectus 

carry 

cingo 

cingere 

cTnxT 

cTnctus 

gird 

ting5 

.  tingere 

tlnxl 

tinctus 

dip 

jungo 

jungere 

junxi 

junctus 

join 

fingo 

fingere 

flnxl 

ffctus 

mould 

pingo 

pingere 

pTnxT 

pTctus 

paint 

stringo 

stringere 

strinxT 

strictus 

bind 

-stinguo  1 

-stinguere 

-stinxT 

-stinctus 

blot  out 

unguo 

unguere 

unxi 

unctus 

anoint 

VIVO 

vivere 

vixi 

vTctum  (est) 

live 

gero 

gerere 

gessi 

gestus 

carry 

uro 

urere 

ussT 

ustus 

burn 

temn5 

temnere 

con-tempsT 

con-temptus 

despise 

b.   Type 

-6,  -ere,  -si, 

-sus. 

figo 

figere 

fixT 

fixus 

fasten 

merg5 

mergere 

mersi 

mersus 

sink 

spargo 

spargere 

sparsT 

sparsus 

scatter 

flecta 

flectere 

flexl 

flexus 

bend 

necta 

nectere 

nexui  (nexl) 

nexus 

twine 

mitta 

mittere 

mTsi 

missus 

send 

rada 

radere 

rasT 

rasus 

shave 

roda 

radere 

rasi 

rasus 

gnaw 

vado 

vadere 

-vasi  2 

-vasum  (est)' 

^  march,  walk 

luda 

ludere 

lusT 

lusum  (est) 

play 

truda 

trudere 

trusT 

trusus 

push 

laeda 

laedere 

laesi 

laesus 

injure,  hurt 

clauda 

claudere 

clausT 

clausus 

close 

plauda 

plaudere 

plausT 

plausum  (est)  clap 

explado 

expladere 

explasT 

explasus 

hoot  off 

ceda 

cedere 

cessT 

cessum  (est) 

withdraw 

divida  ■ 

dividere 

divisT 

divisus 

divide 

prema 

pre  mere 

press! 

pressus 

press 

1  Fully  conjugated  only  in  the  compounds  :  exstinguo^  restinguo,  distinguo. 

2  Only  in  the  compounds :  evado,  invado,  pervado. 


88 


INFLECTIONS. 


2.   Perfect  in  -i  with 

Reduplication. 

ab-do 

abdere 

abdidi 

abditus 

conceal 

red-d5 

red-dere 

reddidi 

redditus 

return 

So  addo 

,  condoj  dedo 

,  per  do,  pro  do,  trddo,  etc. 

c5n-sisto 

consistere 

constiti 

take  one'^s  stand 

resisto 

resistere 

restiti 

resist 

circumsisto  circumsister£  circumsteti 

surround 

cado 

cadere 

cecidi 

casurus 

fall 

caeda 

caedere 

cecidi 

caesus 

kill ' 

pendo 

pendere 

pependi 

pensus 

weigh,  pay 

tendo 

tendere 

tetendi 

tentus 

stretch 

tundo 

tundere 

tutudi 

tusus,  tunsus 

beat 

fallo 

fallere 

fefelli 

(falsus,  as  Adj.^ 

)  deceive 

pello 

pellere 

pepulT 

pulsus 

drive  out 

curr5 

currere 

cucurrT 

cursum  (est) 

rim 

parco 

parcere 

pepercT 

parsurus 

spare 

can5 

canere 

cecini 

sing 

tango 

tangere 

tetigi 

tactus 

touch 

pungo 

pungere 

pupugi 

punctus 

prick 

Note.  - 

-  In  the  following  verbs  the  perfects  were  originally  redupli- 

cated,  but  have  lost  the 

reduplicating  syllable :  — 

per-cello 

percellere 

percuH 

perculsus 

strike  down 

findo 

findere 

fidi 

fissus 

split 

scindo 

scindere 

scidi 

scissus 

tear  apart 

tollo 

tollere 

sus-tulr 

sublatus 

remove 

3.    Perfect  in  -i  with 

Lengthening 

\  of  Stem  Vowel. 

ago 

agere 

eg! 

actus 

drive,  do 

perag5 

peragere 

peregi 

peractus 

finish 

subigo 

subigere 

subegl 

subactus 

subdue 

cogo 

cogere 

coegi 

coactus 

force,  gather 

frango 

frangere 

fregi 

fractus 

break 

perfringo  perfringere 

perfregi 

perfractus 

break  down 

lego 

legere 

leg! 

lectus 

gather,  read 

perleg5 

perlegere 

perlegi 

perlectus 

read  through 

colligo 

colligere 

collegi 

collectus 

collect 

deligo 

deligere 

delegi 

delectus 

choose 

diligo 

dlligere 

dilexi 

dilectus 

love 

intelleg5 

intellegere 

intellexi 

intellectus 

understand 

neglegd 

neglegere 

neglexi 

neglectus 

neglect 

LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


89 


emo 

emere 

emi 

emptus 

btiy 

coemo 

coemere 

coemi 

coemptus 

buy  up 

redimo 

redimere 

rede  ml 

redemptus 

buy  back 

dirim5 

dirimere 

dire  ml 

diremptus 

destroy 

demo 

demere 

dempsi 

demptus 

take  away 

sumo 

sumere 

sumpsi 

sumptus 

take 

promo 

promere 

prampsi 

(pramptus,  as  Adj.) 

take  out 

vinco 

vincere 

vTcT 

victus 

conquer 

re-linquo 

relinquere 

reliquT 

rellctus 

leave 

rumpo 

rumpere 

rupi 

ruptus 

break 

edo 

esse  (§  128)  edi 

esus 

eat 

funda 

fundere 

fudi 

fusus 

pour 

4.   Perfect   in  -1   without   either 

Reduplication   or  Lengthening  U 

Stem  Vowel. 

excudo 

excudere 

excudi 

excusus 

hammer 

consTdd 

cansTdere 

cansedi 

take  one's 
seat 

possid5 

possTdere 

possedi 

possessus 

take  pos- 
session 

accenda 

accendere 

accendl 

accensus 

kindle 

a-scendo 

ascendere 

ascend! 

ascensum  (est) 

climb 

de-fen  do 

defendere 

defend! 

defensus 

defend 

pre-hendo 

prehendere  prehendi 

prehensus 

seize 

ic5 

icere 

ICl 

ictus 

strike 

vello 

vellere 

vein 

vulsus 

pluck 

verto 

vertere 

vert! 

versus 

turn 

panda 

pandere 

pandT 

passus 

spread 

solvo 

solvere 

solvT 

solutus 

loose 

vis5 

vis ere 

visi 

visus 

visit 

volva 

vol  V  ere 

volvT 

volutus 

roll 

verra 

verrere 

verri 

versus 

sweep 

5.   Perfect  in  -ui. 

in-cumbo 

incumbere 

incubui 

incubiturus 

lean  on 

gigno 

gignere 

genu! 

genitus 

bringforth 

mola 

molere 

moluT 

molitus 

grind 

voma 

vomere 

vomul 

vomitus 

vomit 

frema 

fremere 

fremuT 

snort 

gemo 

gemere 

gemuT 

sigh 

meto 

metere 

messui 

messus 

reap 

90 


INFLECTIONS. 


tremo 

tremere 

tremuT 

tremble 

strep5 

strepere 

strepui 

rattle 

alo 

alere 

aim 

altus  (alitus) 

nourish 

colo 

colere 

coluT 

cultus 

cultivate 

incolo 

incolere 

incolui 

inhabit 

excolo 

excolere 

excolui 

excultus 

perfect 

consulo 

consulere 

consulul 

consul  tus 

consult 

c5nsero 

conserere 

conserui 

consertus 

join 

desero 

deserere 

deseniT 

desertus 

desert 

disserd 

disserere 

disseruT 

discourse 

tex5 

texere 

texuT 

textus 

weave 

6.  Perfect 

in  -VI. 

sin5 

sinere 

sivi 

situs 

allow 

desino 

desinere 

desii 

desitus 

cease 

pono 

ponere 

posul 

positus 

place 

ob-lino 

oblinere 

oblevT 

oblitus 

smear 

sero 

serere 

sevT 

satus 

sow 

c5nsero 

conserere 

consevi 

consitus 

plant 

cern5 

cernere 

separate 

discerno 

discernere 

discrevi 

discretus 

distinguish 

decerno 

decernere 

decrevi 

decretus 

decide 

spernd 

spernere 

sprevi 

spretus 

scorn 

sterno 

sternere 

stravi 

stratus 

spread 

pro-sterno 

prosternere 

pr5stravi 

prostratus 

overthrow 

peto 

petere 

petivT  (petii) 

petitus 

seek 

appeto 

appetere 

appetivl 

appetltus 

long  for 

tero 

terere 

trivi 

tritus 

rub 

quaero 

quaerere 

quaesTvT 

quaesTtus 

seek 

acqulr5 

acquTrere 

acquTsTvI 

acquTsitus 

acquire 

arcess5 

arcessere 

arcessTvI 

arcessitus 

summon 

capess5 

capessere 

capessTvT 

capessltus 

seize 

lacesso 

lacessere 

lacessivi 

lacessitus 

provoke 

7.   Used  only  in  Present 

System. 

ango 

angere 

choke 

lamb5 

lambere 

lick 

claudo 

claudere 

be  lame 

fiird 

fiirere 

rave 

vergd 

vergere 

bend 

and  a  few  others. 


LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


91 


II.   Verbs  with  Present  Stem 

ENDING   IN  -U. 

induo 

induere 

indui 

indutus 

put  on 

imbu5 

imbuere 

imbui 

imbutus 

moisten 

luo 

luere 

luT 

wash 

pollu5 

polluere 

pollu! 

pollutus 

defile 

minu5 

minuere 

minuT 

minutus 

lessen 

statu5 

statuere 

statu! 

statutus 

set  up 

constituo 

constituere 

constituT 

constitutus 

determine 

suo 

suere 

SUl 

sutus 

sew 

tribuo 

tribuere 

tribul 

tributus 

allot 

ruo 

mere 

nil 

ruiturus 

fall 

diruo 

diruere 

dirui 

dirutus 

destroy 

obruo 

obruere 

obrui 

obrutus 

overwhelm. 

acuo 

acuere 

acuT 

sharpen 

arguo 

arguere 

argui 

acctise 

congruo 

congruere 

congruT 

agree 

metuo 

metuere 

metuT 

fear 

ab-nuo 

abnuere 

abnui 

decline 

re-spu5 

respuere 

respui 

reject 

struo 

struere 

struxl 

structus 

build 

fluo 

fluere  - 

fluxi 

(fluxus,  as  Adj.)  flow 

III.   Verbs  with  Present  Stem 

ENDING   IN  -I. 

cupio 

cupere 

cupivi 

cup!tus 

wish 

sapid 

sapere 

sapTvT 

taste 

rapio 

rapere 

rapuT 

raptus 

snatch 

diripio 

diripere 

diripuT 

d!reptus 

plunder 

conspicio 

c5nspicere 

conspexi 

conspectus 

gaze  at 

aspicio 

aspicere 

aspexl 

aspectus 

behold 

illicio 

illicere 

illexT 

ijlectus 

allure 

pellicio 

pellicere 

pellexi 

pellectus 

allure 

elicio 

elicere 

elicui 

elicitus 

elicit 

c(liatio 

quatere 

quassus 

shake 

concutio 

concutere 

concuss! 

concussus 

shake 

pari5 

parere 

peper! 

partus 

bring  forth 

capio 

capere 

cep! 

captus 

take 

accipio 

accipere 

accep! 

acceptus 

accept 

incipio 

incipere 

incep! 

inceptus 

begin 

facio 

facere 

fee! 

factus 

7nake 

afficio 

afficere 

affec! 

affectus 

affect 

Passive,  afficior,  afific!,  affectus  sum. 


92 


INFLECTIONS. 


So  other  prepositional  compounds,  perficio,  perficior ;    interficio.  inter ficior ; 
etc.    But  — 
assuefacio  assuefacere  assuefecl  assuefactus  accustom 

Passive,  assuefio,  assuefieri,  assuefactus  sum. 
So  also  patefacio,  pate/id ;   cale/acid,  cale/id ;   and  all  non-prepositional  com- 
pounds. 


jacio 

abicio 
fodio 
fugio 

eifugio 


jacere 

abicere 

fodere 

fugere 

effugere 


jeci 

abjeci 

fodi 

fug! 

eflfugi 


jactus 
abjectus 
fossus 
fugitOrus 


IV. 
I. 

posco 
disco 
pasco 

pascor 
cresco 
consuesc5 
quiesc5 
adolesco 
obsolesco 

nosco 

ignosco 
agnosc5 


Verbs  in  -SCO. 

Verbs  in  -sco  from  Simple  Roots. 


poscere 

discere 

pascere 

pascT 

crescere 

consuescere 

quiescere 

adolescere 

obsolescere 

noscere 

ignoscere 
agnoscere 


poposci 

didici 

pavi 

pastus  sum 

crevi 

c5nsuevl 

quievi 

adolevi 

obsolevi 

novi 

ignovT 
agnovi 


cognosco       cognoscere     cognovi 


pastus 

cretus 
consuetus 
quietiirus 
adultus 


ignoturus 
agnitus 

cognitus 


hurl 

throw  away 
dig 
flee 
escape 


demand 

learn 

feed 

graze 

grow 

accustom  one^s  self 

be  still 

grow  up 

grow  old 
I  become  acquainted 
\      with 

pardon 

recognize 

get  acquainted 
with 


2.   Verbs  in  -sco  formed  from  other  Verbs. 
These  usually  have  Inchoative  or  Inceptive  meaning  (see  §  155.  i). 
When  they  have  the  Perfect,  it  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Verbs  from 
which  they  are  derived.  • 


floresco 

florescere 

floruT 

begin  to  bloom 

(floreo) 

scisc5 

scTscere 

scTvi 

enact 

(scia) 

aresco 
calesco 

arescere 
calescere 

anil 
calui 

becojne  dry 
become  hot 

(areo) 
(caleo) 

consenesco 

consenescere 

consenui 

grow  old 

(seneo) 

extimesco 

extimescere 

extimui 

fear  greatly 

(timeo) 

ingemTsc5 
adhaeresco 

ingemiscere 
adhaerescere 

ingemuT 
adhaesi 

sigh 
stick 

(gem5) 
(haereo) 

LIST  OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


93 


3.    Verbs 

in  -SCO  derived 

from  Adjectives,  usually  with  Inchoative 

meaning. 

obduresco 

obdurescere 

obdurul      grow  hard 

(durus) 

evanesco 

evanescere 

evanuT        disappear 

(vanus) 

percrebresco 

percrebrescere 

percrebrul  grow  fresh 

(creber) 

maturesco 

maturescere 

matiirui      grow  ripe 

(maturus) 

obmutesco 

obmutescere 

obmutui     grow  dumb 

(mutus) 

V.   Deponents. 

fungor 

fungi 

functus  sum 

perform 

queror 

queri 

questus  sum 

complain 

loquor 

loquT 

locutus  sum 

speak 

sequor 

sequT 

secutus  sum 

follow 

fruor 

frul 

fruitiirus 

enjoy 

perfruor 

perfrui 

perfructus  sum 

thoroughly  enjoy 

labor 

labi 

lapsus  sum 

glide 

amplector 

amplect! 

amplexus  sum 

embrace 

nltor 

niti 

nlsus  sum,  nixus  sum 

strive 

gradior 

gradi 

gressus  sum 

walk 

patior 

pati 

passus  sum 

suffer 

perpetior 

perpetl 

perpessus  sum 

endure 

utor 

uti 

usus  sum 

use 

morior 

mori 

mortuus  sum 

die 

adipTscor 

adipiscT 

adeptus  sum 

acquire 

comminlscoi 

comminTsci 

commentus  sum" 

invent 

remimscor 

reminiscT 

reinember 

nan  CIS  cor 

nancTsci 

nanctus  (nactus)  sum 

acquire 

nascor 

nasci 

natus  sum 

be  born 

oblivTscor 

oblivTscT 

oblitus  sum 

forget 

paciscor 

pacTscT 

pactus  sum 

covenant 

proficTscor 

proficTscI 

profectus  sum 

set  out 

ulcTsror 

ulclscl 

ultus  sum 

avenge 

Trascor 

irascT 

(Tratus,  as  Adj.) 

be  angry 

vescor 

vescT 

eat 

Fourth  Conjugation. 

123.   I.   Perfect  ends  in  -VI. 

audio  audire  audlvi        auditus  hear 

So  all  regular  Verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation, 
sepelio  sepelTre  sepellv'i      sepultus  bury 


94 


INFLECTIONS. 


II.  ] 

Perfect  ends 

IN  -ui. 

aperio 

aperire 

aperui 

apertus 

open 

operia 

operire 

operuT 

opertus 

cover 

salio 

salire 

saluT 

leap 

III. 

Perfect  ends 

IN  -si. 

saepio 

saepTre 

saepsT 

saeptus 

hedge  in 

sancid 

sancTre 

sanxi 

sanctus 

ratify 

vincio 

vincTre 

vinxi 

vinctus 

bind 

amici5 

amicire 

amictus 

envelop 

fulcio 

fulcTre 

fulsT 

fultus 

prop  up 

refercio 

refercire 

refers! 

refertus 

fill 

sarcio 

sarcTre 

sarsi 

sartus 

patch 

haurid 

haurire 

hausi 

haustus 

draw 

sentio 

sentire 

sens! 

sensus 

feel 

IV. 

Perfect  in  -I 

WITH   LENGTHENING   OF 

Stem  Vowel, 

venio 

venire 

vem 

ventum  ( 

est)    come 

advenio 

advenire 

adveni 

adventum  (est)  arrive 

invenio 

invemre 

invenl 

inventus 

find 

V.   Perfect  with  Loss  of  Reduplication. 


reperio             reperire 

repperi       repertus 

find 

comperid          comperire 

comperl     compertus 

learn 

VI.  Used  only  in  the 

Present. 

ferio                  ferire 

strike 

esuria               esurire 

be  hungry 

VII.   Deponents. 

largior              largiri 

largitus  sum 

bestow 

So  many  others. 

experior           experiri 

expertus  sum 

try 

opperior           opperirT 

oppertus  sum 

await 

ardior               ardiri 

arsus  sum 

begin 

orior                 oriri 

ortus  sum 

arise 

Orior  usually  follows  the  Third  Conjugation  in  its  inflection  ;  as^ 
oreris,  oritur,  or^mur ;  orerer  (Imp.  Subj.)  ;  orere  (Imper.). 
metior  metiri  mensussum  7neasure^ 

sissentior         assentiri  assensussum  assent 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  95 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

124.  A  number  of  Verbs  are  called  Irregular.  The  most 
important  are  sum,  do,  edo,  fero,  volo,  nolo,  malo,  eo,  fio. 
The  peculiarity  of  these  Verbs  is  that  they  append  the 
personal  endings  in  many  forms .  directly  to  the  stem, 
instead  of  employing  a  connecting  vowel,  as  fer-s  (2d 
Sing,  of  fer-6),  instead  of  fer-i-s.  They  are  but  the  relics 
of  what  was  once  in  Latin  a  large  class  of  Verbs. 

125.  The  Inflection  of  sum  has  already  been  given.  Its  various 
compounds  are  inflected  in  the  same  way.     They  are  — 

absum  abesse  afui  am  absent 

Pres.  Pariic.  absens  (absentis),  absent. 
adsum  adesse  adfui  am  present 

desum  deesse  defuT  am  lacking 

insum  inesse  infui  am  in 

intersum  interesse  interful  atn  among 

praesum  praeesse  praeful  am  in  charge  of 

Pres.  Partic.  praesens  (praesentis),/r<?j-^«/. 
obsum  obesse  obfuT  hinder 

pr5sum  prodesse  profuT  am  of  advantage 

subsum  subesse  subfuT  am  underneath 

supersum  superesse  superfui  am  left 

Note. —  Prosum  is  compounded  of  prod  (earlier  form  of  pro)  and  sum  ; 
the  d  disappears  before  consonants,  as  prosumus  ;  but  prodestis. 

126.  Possum.  In  its  Present  System  possum  is  a  compound  of 
pot-  (for  pote,  able^  and  sum ;  potui  is  from  an  obsolete  potere. 


PRINCIPAL 

PARTS. 

possum, 

posse. 

potui,            to  be  able. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR, 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

possum,  potes,  potest; 

possumus,  potestis,  possunt. 

Imp. 

poteram ; 

poteramus. 

Fut. 

potero ; 

poterimus. 

Perf 

potuT ; 

potuimus. 

Plup. 

potueram ; 

potueramus. 

Fut.  P. 

potuero ; 

potuerimus. 

96 

INFLECTIONS. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

possim,  possis,  possit ;       possTmus,  possltis,  possint. 

Imp. 

possem ; 

possemus. 

Perf. 

potuerim ; 

potuerimus. 

Plup. 

potuissem ; 

potuissemus. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

posse. 

Pres.   potens  (as  an  adjective). 

Perf. 
127. 

potuisse. 

Do,  I  give. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

46, 

dSre,                     dedi,                  dStua. 

Active  Voice. 

1 

NDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR.                                              PLURAL. 

Pres. 

do,  das,  dat ; 

damus,  datis,  dant. 

Imp. 

dabam,  etc. ; 

dabamus. 

Fut. 

dabo,  etc. ; 

dabimus. 

Perf. 

dedi; 

dedimus. 

Plup. 

dederam ; 

dederamus. 

Fut.  P.  dedero ; 

dederimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

dem  ; 

demus. 

Imp. 

darem ; 

daremus. 

Perf. 

dederim ; 

dederimus. 

Plup. 

dedissem ; 

dedissem  us. 
IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

da; 

date. 

Fut. 

dato; 

datote. 

dato. 

danto. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

dare. 

dans. 

Perf. 

dedisse. 

Fut. 

daturus  esse 

daturus. 

GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

dandi,  etc. 

datum,  datu. 

IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


97 


1.  The  Passive  is  inflected  regularly  with  the  short  vowel.  Thus: 
d^ri,  datur,  dabatur,  dSretur,  etc. 

2.  The  archaic  and  poetic  Present  Subjunctive  forms  duim,  duint, 
perduit,  perduint,  etc.,  are  not  from  the  root  da-,  but  from  du-^  a 
collateral  root  of  similar  meaning. 

128.  J^dib.Ieat. 


edo. 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


esse. 


edi, 


esus. 


Active  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.   edo, 

edimus, 

es. 

estis. 

est; 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

edunt. 

Imp.    essem. 

essemus, 

esses. 

essetis, 

esset ; 

IMPERATIVE. 

essent. 

Pres.   es; 

este. 

Fut.     esto ; 

estote. 

esto; 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  esse. 

Passive  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  2,d  Sing,  estur. 

edunt5. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Imp.  -^d  Sing,  essetur. 

1.  Observe  the  long  vowel  of  the  forms  in  es-,  which  alone  distin- 
guishes them  from  the  corresponding  forms  of  esse,  to  be. 

2.  Note    comedo,    comesse,    comedi,    comesus    or   comestus, 
consume. 

3.  The  Present  Subjunctive  has  edim,  -is,  -it,  etc.,  less  often  edam^ 
-as,  etc. 


98  INFLECTIONS. 


129. 

Fero,  I  bear. 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

fero, 

ferre,                      tuli,                     latus. 

Active  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

fero,  fers, 

fert ;                          ferimus,  fertis,  ferunt.^ 

Imp. 

ferebam ; 

ferebamus. 

Put. 

feram ; 

feremus. 

Perf. 

tuli; 

tulimus. 

Plup. 

tuleram  5 

tuleramus. 

Put.  P. 

,   tulero; 

tulerimus. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

feram ; 

feramus. 

Imp. 

ferre  m; 

ferre  mus. 

Perf. 

tulerim ; 

tulerimus. 

Plup. 

tulissem ; 

tulissemus. 
IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

fer; 

ferte. 

Put. 

ferto ; 

fertote. 

ferto ; 

ferunto. 

INFINITIVE 

:.                                  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

ferre. 

Pres.   ferens. 

Perf. 

tulisse. 

Put. 

laturus  esse.                    Put.     laturus. 

GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

Gen. 

ferendi. 

Dat. 

ferendo. 

Ace. 

ferendum. 

Ace.     latum. 

AM. 

ferendo. 

Abl.     latu. 

I 


1  It  will  be  observed  that  not  all  the  forms  of  fero  lack  the  connecting  vowel. 
Some  of  them,  as  ferimus,  ferunt,  follow  the  regular  inflection  of  verbs  of  the 
Third  Conjugation. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


99 


Passive  Voice. 

feror, 

ferri, 

latus  sum, 

to  be  borne. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

feror,  ferns,  fertur ; 

ferimur,  ferimim,  feruntur. 

Imp. 

fere  bar ; 

ferebamur. 

Fut. 

ferar ; 

feremur. 

Perf. 

latus  sum ; 

lati  sumus. 

Plup. 

latus  eram ; 

latl  eramus. 

Fut.  P. 

.    latus  er5 ; 

lati  erimus. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Pres. 

ferar ; 

feramur. 

Imp. 

ferrer ; 

ferremur. 

Perf. 

latus  sim ; 

latl  sTmus. 

Plup. 

latus  essem ; 

lati  essemuj 

IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

ferre ; 

feriminl. 

Fut. 

fertor ; 

fertor ; 

feruntor. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

ferri. 

Perf. 

latus  esse. 

Perf.   latus. 

Fut. 

latum  iri. 

Ger.     ferendus. 

So  also  the  Compounds  — 

affero 

afferre            attuli 

allatus 

bring  toward 

aufero 

auferre           abstulT 

ablatus 

take  away 

conferd 

conferre         contuli 

collatus 

compare 

differo 

differre           distuli 

dilatus 

put  off 

effer5 

efferre            extuli 

elatus 

carry  out 

Infera 

Tnferre            intuli 

illatus 

bring  against 

offero 

offerre            obtuli 

oblatus 

present 

refero 

referre            rettuli 

relatus 

bring  back 

Note.  —  The  forms  sustuli  and  sublatus  belong  to  toUo. 


lOO 


INFLECTIONS. 


130. 

Volo,  nolo,  malo. 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

volo, 

velle,               volui, 

to  wish. 

nolo, 

nolle,               nolui, 

to  be  unwilling. 

malo, 

,               malle,              malui, 

to  prefer. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres. 

volo, 

nolo. 

malo. 

VIS, 

non  vis. 

mavis, 

vult; 

n5n  vult ; 

ma  vult ; 

volumus, 

n5lumus, 

malumus, 

vultis, 

non  vultis, 

mavultis. 

volunt. 

nolunt. 

malunt. 

Imp, 

volebam. 

n5lebam. 

malebam. 

Fut. 

volam. 

nolam. 

malam. 

Per/. 

voluT. 

noluT. 

malul. 

Plup. 

volueram. 

ri5lueram. 

malueram. 

Fut.  P. 

voluero. 

n5luer5. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 

maluerd. 

Pres. 

velim,  -Is, 

-it,  etc.         n5lim. 

malim. 

Imp. 

vellem,  -es,  -et,  etc.      n5llem. 

mallem. 

Per/. 

voluerim. 

noluerim. 

maluerim. 

Plup. 

voluissem. 

ndluissem. 

maluissem. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Pres.  n5lT ;  nolTte. 
Fut.     nolito;  nolitote. 

nolito :  n5lunto. 


Pres.        velle. 
Perf.        voluisse. 


INFINITIVE. 

nolle. 
n5luisse. 


malle. 
maluisse. 


Pres.        vol  ens. 


PARTICIPLE. 

nalens. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


lo; 


131. 

Pio. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

fio, 

fieri,                factus  sum, 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

to  become^  be  madi 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

f  10,  f  IS,  fit ; 

ffmus,  fitis,  fiunt. 

Imp. 

fie  bam ; 

fiebamus. 

Put. 

fiam; 

fiemus. 

Per/. 

factus  sum ; 

fact!  sumus. 

Plup. 

factus  eram  ; 

fact!  eramus. 

Put.  P. 

.  factus  ero ; 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

fact!  erimus. 

Pres. 

fiam; 

fiamus. 

Imp. 

fierem ; 

fieremus. 

Perf. 

factus  sim; 

fact!  sTmus. 

Plup. 

factus  essem ; 

IMPERATIVE. 

fact!  essemus. 

Pres. 

fi; 

flte. 

INFINITIVE.                                    PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.       fieri. 

Perf.       factus  esse.  Perf.  factus. 

Fut.        factum  Tri.  Ger.    faciendus. 

Note.  —  A  few  isolated  forms  of  compounds  of  fio  occur ;  as,  defit, 
lacks ;  infit,  begins. 

132. 


E6. 

PRINCIPAL 

PARTS. 

36, 

ire,            ivi. 

itum  (est). 

to  go. 

INDICATIVE 

MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Pres. 

eo,  IS,  it ; 

Tmus,  Ttis,  eunt. 

Imp. 

ibam; 

Tbamus. 

Fut. 

ibo; 

ibimus. 

Perf 

ivi  (ii)  ; 

ivimus  (iimus). 

Plup. 

Tveram  (ieram); 

Tveramus  (ieramus). 

Fut.  P. 

ivero  (iero) ; 

• 

iverimus  (ierimus). 

JQ2 


INFLECTIONS. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 

Pres.  earn ;  eamus. 

Imp.  irem ;  iremus. 

Perf.  iverim  (ierim)  ;  iverimus  (ierimus) . 

Plup.  ivissem  (iissem,  Tssem)  ;  ivissemus  (iissemus,issemus). 


IMPERATIVE. 

Pres. 

i; 

ite. 

Put. 

ito; 

itote, 

ito; 

eunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Pres. 

ire. 

Pres. 

iens. 

Perf. 

ivisse  (isse). 

{Gen. 

euntis.) 

Put. 

iturus  esse. 

Put. 

iturus.       Gerundive,  eundum 

GERUND. 

SUPINE. 

eundi,  etc. 

itum,  itu. 

I.   Transitive  compounds  of  eo  admit  the  full  Passive  inflection ;  as, 
adeor,  adiris,  aditur,  etc. 

DEFECTIVE   VERBS. 

Defective  Verbs  lack  certain  forms.     The  following  are 
the  most  important :  — 

133.    Used  Mainly  in  the  Perfect  System. 
Coepi,  I  have  begujt.  Memini,  I  remember.  Odi,  I  hate. 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 


Perf.      coepi. 
Plup.      coeperam. 
Put.  P.  coepero. 


Perf.      coeperim. 
Plup.     coepissem. 


memmi. 

memineram. 

meminero. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

meminerim. 
meminissem. 


odi. 

5deram. 

odero. 


oderim. 
odissem. 


IMPERATIVE. 

Sing,  memento  ;   Plur.  mementdte. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


103 


INFINITIVE. 

Perf. 

coepisse.                   meminisse. 

odisse. 

Fui. 

coepturus  esse. 

PARTICIPLE. 

osurus  esse. 

Perf. 

coeptus,  begun. 

osus. 

Fut. 

coepturus. 

osurus. 

1.  When  coepi  governs  a  Passive  Infinitive  it  usually  takes  the  form 
coeptus  est ;  as,  amari  coeptus  est,  he  began  to  be  loved. 

2.  Note  that  memini  and  odi,  though  Perfect  in  form,  are  Present 
in  sense.  Similarly  the  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect  have  the  force  of 
the  Imperfect  and  Future;  as,  memineram,  I  remembered;  odero, 
/  shall  hate. 

134.    Inquam,  I  say  (inserted  between  words  of  a  direct  quotation) - 


Pres. 


Fut. 


135. 


Pres. 


Imp. 


INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

inquam, 

inquis, 

inquit ; 

inquiunt. 

inquies, 

inquiet. 

Perf.  -^d  Sing,  inquit. 

A  jo,  /  say. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

ajo. 

ais, 

ait; 

ajunt. 

ajebam, 

ajebamus. 

ajebas, 

ajebatis, 

ajebat; 

ajebant. 

Perf  sd  Sing.   ait. 

Note. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres  ^d  Sz'ng.  ajat. 
For  aisne,  do  you  mean?  ain  is  common. 


I04  INFLECTIONS. 


136.  Fari,  to  speak. 

This  is  inflected  regularly  in  the  perfect  tenses.      In  the  Present 
System  it  has  — 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Pres. 


fatur. 

' 

Fut, 

fabor, 

fabitur. 

Impv. 

fare. 

Inf. 

fari. 

Pres.  Partic. 

fantis,  fant 

1,  etc. 

Gerund,  G., 

fandi  ;  D. 

and  Abl. 

,  fando. 

Gerundwe, 

fandus. 

Note. — Forms  of  fari  are  rare.     More  frequent  are  its  compounds;  as, — 
af fatur,  he  addresses  ;   praefamur,  we  say  in  advance. 

137.  Other  Defective  Forms. 

1.  Queo,  quire,  quivi,  to  be  able.,  and  nequeo,  nequire,  nequivi, 
to  be  unable,  are  inflected  like  eo,  but  occur  chiefly  in  the  Present  Tense, 
and  there  only  in  special  forms. 

2.  Quaeso,  /  entreat;  qvLa.esvLm\ia,  we  entreat. 

3.  Cedo  (2d  sing.  Impv.),  cette  (2d  plu.)  ;  give  me,  tell  me. 

4.  Salve,  salvete,  hail.     Also  Infinitive,  salvere. 

5.  Have  (ave),  havete,  hail.     Also  Infinitive,  hav§re. 

IMPERSONAL   VERBS. 

138.  Impersonal  Verbs  correspond  to  the  English,  it 
snows y  it  seems y  etc.  They  have  no  personal  subject,  but 
may  take  an  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  a  Neuter  Pronoun ; 
as,  me  pudet  hoc  fecisse,  lit.  it  shames  me  to  have  done  this  ; 
hoc  decet,  this  is  fitting.     Here  belong  — 

I.   Verbs  denoting  operations  of  the  weather;  as, — 

fijlget  fulsit  //  lightens 

tonat  tonuit  it  thunders 


IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 


loS 


grandinat 

it  hails 

ningit 

ninxit 

it  snows 

pluit 

pluit 

it  rains 

II.    Special  Verbs. 

paenitet 

paenitere 

paenituit 

- 

it  repents 

piget 

pigere 

piguit 

it  grieves 

pudet 

pudere 

puduit 

it  causes  shame 

taedet 

taedere 

taeduit 

it  disgusts 

miseret 

miserere 

miseruit 

it  causes  pity 

libet 

libere 

libuit 

it  pleases 

licet 

licere 

licuit 

it  is  lawful 

oportet 

oportere 

oportuit 

it  is  fitting 

decet 

decere 

decuit 

it  is  beco7ning 

dedecet 

dedecere 

dedecuit 

it  is  unbeco7niftg 

refert 

referre 

retulit 

it  co7icer7is 

III.   Verbs 

Impersonal  only  in  Special  Senses. 

constat 

constare 

constitit 

it  is  evident 

praestat 

praestare 

praestitit 

it  is  better 

juvat 

juvare 

juvit 

it  delights 

apparet 

apparere 

appamit 

it  appears 

placet 

placere 

placuit  (placitum  est)    //  pleases 

accedit 

accedere 

accessit 

it  is  added 

accidit 

accidere 

accidit 

it  happens 

contingit 

contingere 

contigit 

it  happens 

evenit 

evenlre 

evenit 

it  turns  out 

interest 

interesse 

interfuit 

it  concerns 

IV.   The  Passive  of  Intransitive  Verbs  ; 

as,— 

Ttur 

lit.  it  is 

gone 

i.e. 

so77te  one  goes 

curritur 

lit.  it  is  run 

i.e. 

soTue  one  runs 

ventum  est 

lit.  it  has  been  co7ne 

i.e. 

some  07ie  has  come 

veniendum  est 

lit.  //  7nust  be  co7ne 

i.e. 

so7nebody  7nust  comt 

pugnari  potest 

lit.  it  can  be  fought 

i.e. 

so7nebody  can  fight 

Part  III 


PARTICLES. 


139.  Particles  are  the  four  Parts  of  Speech  that  do  not 
admit  of  inflection ;  viz.  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunc-^ 
tions,  Interjections. 


ADVERBS. 

140.  Adverbs  denote  manner,  place,  time,  or  degree. 
Most  adverbs  are  in  origin  case-forms  which  have  become 
stereotyped  by  usage.  The  common  adverbial  terminations 
have  already  been  given  above  (§  "j^).  The  following: 
Table  of  Correlatives  is  important :  — 


Relative  and  Interrogative. 

ubi,  where ;  where  ? 
quo,  whither]  whither  ? 


unde,  whence ;  whence  f 


qua,  where  ;  where  ? 


cum,  when. 
quando,  when  ? 
quotiens,  as  often  as ; 

how  often  ? 
quam,  as  much  as ;  how 

much  f 


Demonstrative. 

hie,  here. 

ibi,  illic,  istic,  there. 

hue,  hither. 

eo,  istue,  illue, 

thither. 
hine,  hence. 
inde,  istine,  illine, 

thence. 
hac,  by  this  way. 
ea,  istae,  illae,  by 

that  way. 
nunc,  now. 
turn,  tune,  then. 
totiens,  so  often. 


tarn,  so  much. 


Indefinite. 

alicubi,  usquam,  us- 

piam,  somewhere. 

aliquo,  to  some  place. 


alicunde,  frojn  some- 
where. 

aliqua,  by  some  way. 


aliquando,  umquam, 

sometime,  ever. 
aliquotiens,  some 

nurnber  of  times. 
aliquantum, 

somewhat. 


io6 


PREPOSITIONS.  107 


PREPOSITIONS. 

141.  Prepositions  show  relations  of  words.  The  fol- 
lowing Prepositions  govern  the  Accusative  :  — 

ad,  to.  contra,  against.  post,  after. 

adversus,  against,  erga,  toward.  praeter,  past. 

adversum,  toward,  extra,  outside.  prope,  near. 

against.  infra,  below.  propter,  on  account  of. 

ante,  before.  inter,  between.  secundum,  after. 

apud,  with,  near.  intra,  within.  subter,  beneath. 

circ&,  around.  juxta,  near.  super,  over. 

circiter,  about.  ob,  on  account  of.  supra,  above. 

circum,  around.  penes,  in  the  hands  of.     trans,  across. 

cis,  this  side  of.  per,  through.  ultra,  beyond. 

citra,  this  side  of.  pone,  behind.  versus,  toward. 

1.  Usque  is  often  prefixed  to  ad,  in  the  sense  of  even;  as, — 

usque  ad  urbem,  even  to  the  city. 

2.  Versus  always  follows  its  case  ;  as,  — 

Romam  versus,  toward  Rofne. 
It  may  be  combined  with  a  preceding  Preposition  ;  as,  — 
ad  urbem  versus,  toward  the  city. 

3.  Like  prope,  the  Comparatives  propior,  propius,  and  the  Super- 
latives proximus,  proxime,  sometimes  govern  the  Accusative;  as, — 

Ubii  proxime  Rhenum  incolunt,  the  Ubii  dwell  next  to  the  Rhine; 
propius  castra  hostium,  nearer  the  camp  of  the  ene7Tiy. 

142.  The  following  Prepositions  govern  the  Ablative  :  — 

a,  ab,  a}os,from,  by.  cum,  with.  pro,  in  front  of 

absque,  without.  A^,  front,  concerniftg.  for. 

coram,  in  the  presence  e,  ex,  from,  out  of.  sine,  without. 

of.  prae,  before.  tenus,  tip  to. 

1.  A,  ab,  abs.  Before  vowels  or  h,  ab  must  be  used;  before  con- 
sonants we  find  sometimes  a,  sometimes  ab  (the  latter  usually  not 
before  the  labials  b,  p,  f,  v,  m  ;  nor  before  c,  g,  q,  or  t)  ;  abs  occurs 
only  before  te,  and  a  is  admissible  even  there. 

2.  E,-  ex.  Before  vowels  or  h,  ex  must  be  used ;  before  conso- 
nants, we  find  sometimes  e,  sometimes  ex. 


Io8  PARTICLES. 


3.  Tenus  regularly  follows  its  case,  as,  pectoribus  tenus,  up  to  the 
breast.  It  sometimes  governs  the  Genitive,  as,  labrorum  tenus,  as  far 
as  the  lips. 

4.  Cum  is  appended  to  the  Pronouns  of  the  First  and  Second 
Persons,  and  to  the  Reflexive  Pronoun ;  usually  also  to  the  Relative 
and  Interrogative.     Thus  :  — 

mecum  nobiscum  quocum  or  cum  quo 

tecum  vobiscum  quacum  or  cum  qua 

secum  quibuscum  or  cum  quibus 

On  quTcum,  see  §  89,  Footnote  i. 

143.  Two  Prepositions,  in,  in^  into,  and  sub,  under,  gov- 
ern both  the  Accusative  and  the  Ablative.  With  the  Ac- 
cusative they  denote  motion ;  with  the  Ablative,  rest ;  as,  — 

in  urbem,  into  the  city ;  in  urbe,  in  the  city. 

I.  Subter  and  super  are  also  occasionally  construed  with  the 
Ablative. 

144.  Relation  of  Adverbs  and  Prepositions. 

1.  Prepositions  were  originally  Adverbs,  and  many  of  them  still 
retain  their  adverbial  meaning;  as,  post,  afterwards  -,  ante,  previ- 
ously ;  contra,  on  the  other  hand,  etc. 

2.  Conversely  several  words,  usually  adverbs,  are  occasionally 
employed  as  prepositions  ;  as,  — 

clam,  pridie,  with  the  Accusative. 
procul,  simul,  palam,  with  the  Ablative. 

3.  Andstrophe.  A  Preposition  sometimes  follows  its  case.  This 
is  called  Andstrophe  ;  as,  — 

ei,  quos  inter  erat,  those  among  whom  he  was. 
Anastrophe  occurs  chiefly  with  dissyllabic  prepositions. 

CONJUNCTIONS    AND    INTERJECTIONS. 

145.  I.  Conjunctions  are  used  to  connect  ideas.  For 
Coordinate  Conjunctions,  see  §§  341  ff.  Subordinate  Con- 
junctions are  treated  in  connection  with  Subordinate  Clauses. 

2.    Interjections  express  emotion.     Thus  :  — 

1.  Surprise;  as,  en,  ecce,  6. 

2.  Joy ;  as,  io,  euoe. 

3.  Sorrow  and  Pain ;  as,  heu,  eheu,  vae,  pro. 

4.  Calling  ;  as,  heus,  eho. 


Part    IV. 

WORD-FORMATION. 

— ¥— 

I.    DERIVATIVES. 

146.  Derivatives  are  formed  by  appending  certain  ter- 
minations called  Suffixes  to  stems  of  verbs,  nouns,  or 
adjectives. 

A.   NOUNS. 
1.   Nouns  derived  from  Verbs. 

147.  I .  The  suffix  -tor  (-sor),.  Fem.  -trix,  denotes  />^<?  agen^ ;  as,  — 

victor,  vie  trix,  victor ;  defensor,  defender. 

Note.  —  The  suffix  -tor    is   occasionally  appended  to  noun  stems ;    as,  — 
gladiator,  gladiator  (from  gladius) . 

2.  The  suffix  -or  (originally  -6s)  denotes  an  activity  or  a  condi- 
tion'^ as, — 

amor, /(C^/^;  timor,y^^r;  AoIot,  pain. 

3.  The  suffixes  -tio  (-sio).  Gen.  -onis,  and  -tus  (-sus).  Gen.  -us, 
denote  an  action  as  in  process ;  as,  — 

venatio,   hunting]  obsessio,   blockade]   gemitus,   sighing]   cursus, 
running. 

Note.  —  Rarer  endings  with  the  same  force  are :  — 
a)  -tura, -sura ;  as, — 

sepultura,  burial;  mensura,  measuring, 
d)  -ium;  as,— 

gaudium,  rejoicing, 
c)  -ido;  as,— 

cupido,  desire. 

109 


IIO  WORD-FORMATION. 

4     The  suffixes  -men,  -mentum,  -crum,  -trum,  -bulum,  -culnm, 
denote  the  means  or  place  of  an  action  ;  as,  — 

lumen  (luc-s-men),  light]  vocabulum,  word] 

ornamentum,  ornament;  documentum, ^r^^; 

sepulcrum,  grave ;  aratrum,  plough  ; 

vehiculum,  carriage. 

2.   Nouns  derived  from  Nouns. 
148.     I .    Diminutives  end  in  — 


-ulus, 

(-ula 

,             -ulum) 

-olus, 

(-ola,             -olum), 

after  a  vowel 

-cuius, 

(-oula,           -culum) 

-ellus, 

(-ella 

L,            -ellum) 

-illus, 

(-Ula 

.,            -ilium) 

nidulus 

little  nest 

(nidus) ; 

virgula, 

wand 

(virga)  ; 

oppidulum 

L, 

little  town 

(oppidum)  ; 

filiolus, 

little  son 

(filius); 

opusculum, 

little  work 

(opus)  ;       ' 

tabella, 

tablet 

(tabula)  ; 

lapillus, 

pebble 

(lapis). 

Note  i.  —  It  will  be  observed  that  in  gender  the  Diminutives  follow  the  gender 
of  the  words  from  which  they  are  derived. 

Note  2.  —  The  endings  -ellus,  -illus  contain  the  primitive  form  of  the  diminu- 
tive suffix,  viz.t  -I0-.    Thus  :  — 

agellus,        field,         for      ager-lus; 
lapillus,         pebble,      for      lapid-lus. 

2.  The  suffix  -ium  appended  to  nouns  denoting  persons  designates 
either  a  collection  of  such  persons  or  their  ftmction  ]  as, — 

collegium,  a  corporation^  body  of  colleagues  (collega)  ; 
sacerdotium,  priestly  function  (sacerdos). 

3.  The  suffixes  -arium,  -etum,  -Tie  designate  a  place  vi^here  objects 
are  kept  or  are  found  in  abundance ;  as,  — 

columbarium,     dove-cote  (columba) ; 

olivetum,  olive-orchard    (oliva)  ; 

ovile,  sheep-fold  (ovis) . 


NOUNS.  —  ADJECTIVES.  1 1 1 

4.  The  suffix  -atus  denotes  official  position  or  honor '^  as, — 

consulatus,  consulship  (consul). 

5.  The  suffix  -ina  appended  to  nouns  denoting  persons  designates 
a,  vocatiojt  or  the  place  where  it  is  carried  on ;  as,  — 

doctrina,  teaching  (doctor,  teacher^  ; 

medicina,  the  art  of  healing  (medicus,  physician)  ; 

sutrina,  cobbler'' s  shop  (sutor,  cobbler) . 

6.  Patronymics   are   Greek   proper    names   denoting  son   of  .  .  ., 
■daughter  of  ...  .     They  have  the  following  suffixes  :  — 

a)  Masculines :  -ides,  -ades,  -ides ;  as,  Priamides,  so7t  of 
Priam ;  Aeneades,  son  of  Aeneas ;  Pelides,  so?i  of  Peleus. 

b)  Feminines  :  -eis,  -is,  -ias  ;  as,  Nereis,  daughter  of  Nereus ; 
Atlantis,  daughter  of  Atlas;  Thaumantias,  daughter  of 
Thaumas. 

3.    Nouns  derived  from  Adjectives. 

149.  The  suffixes  -tas  (-itas),  -tudo  (-itudo),  -ia,  -itia  are  used 
for  the  formation  of  abstract  nouns  denoting  qualities ;  as,  — 
bonitas,    goodness;    celeritas,    swiftness;    magnitude,    greatness; 

audacia,  boldness;  durHcitiB., friendship. 

B.    ADJECTIVES. 
1.    Adjectives  derived  from  Verbs. 

150.  I .    The  suffixes  -bundus  and  -cundus  give  nearly  the  force 
of  a  present  participle  ;  as,  — 

tTemehundvLS,  trembling ;  jucundus  (}u^r^),  pleasing. 

2.  The   suffixes  -ax  and  -ulus  denote  an  inclination  or  tendency, 
mostly  a  faulty  one ;  as,  — 

loquax,  loquacious ;  credulus,  credulous. 

3.  The  suffix  -idus  denotes  a  state;  as,  — 

calidus,  ^^^'Z ;  timidus, ////z/V/;  cupidus,  ^^^^r. 

4.  The  suffixes  -ilis  and  -bills  denote  capacity  or  ability,  usually  in 
a  passive  sense ;  as,  — 

ix^^iWa,  fragile  (i.e.  capable  of  being  broken)  ; 
docilis,  docile. 


1 1 2  WORD-FORMATION. 

2.    Adjectives  derived  from  Nouns. 

a)  Frojn  Common  Nouns. 

151.  I .  The  suffixes  -eus  and  -inus  are  appended  to  names  of  sub- 
stances or  materials  ;  as,  — 

aureus,  of  gold;  lerieus,  of  iron ;        fsL^inus,  of  deeck. 

2.  The  suffixes  -ius,  -icus,  -ilis,  -alis,  -aris,  -arius,  -nus,  -anus, 
-Inus,  -ivus,  -ensis  signify  belo7iging  to,  connected  with  ;  as,  — 

OTa.tdiius,  oratorical ;  legionarius,  legionary; 

bellicus,  pertaining  to  war ;        paternus,  paternal ; 
civilis,  civil;  urbanus,  of  the  city; 

recalls,  regal ;  marinus,  marine ; 

consularis,  consular ;  aestivus,  pertaining  to  summer ; 

circ ensis,  belonging  to  the  circus. 

3.  The  suffixes  -osus  and  -lentus  dtnoit  fullness ;  as,  — 
periculosus,  full  of  danger,  gloriosus,  glorious ; 

dangerous ;  opulentus,  wealthy. 

4.  The  suffix  -tus  has  the  force  oi provided  with ;  as,  — 
barbatus,  bearded;  stellatus,  set  with  stars. 

b)  Frofn  Proper  Names. 

152.  I.  Names  oi  persons  take  the  suffixes  :  -anus,  -ianus,  -inus  ; 
as,— 

Catonianus,  belonging  to  Cato ;  Plautinus,  belonging  to  Plautus. 

2.  Names  oi  nations  take  the  suffixes  -icus,  -ius  ;  as, — 
Germanicus,  German;  Thracius,  Thracian. 

3.  Names  of  places  take  the  suffixes  -anus,  -inus,  -ensis,  -aeus, 
-ius;  as, — 

Romanus,  Roman  ;  Atheniensis,  Athenia7i ; 

Amerinus,  of  Ameria;  Smyrnaeus,  of  Smyrna  ; 

Corinthius,  Corinthian. 

Note. anus  and  -ensis,  appended  to  names  of  countries,  desig- 
nate something  stationed  in  the  country  or  connected  with  it,  but  not 
indigenous ;  *as,  — 

bellum  Africanum,  a  war  {of  Ro?nans  with  Romans^  in  Africa. 

bellum  Hispaniense,  a  war  carried  on  in  Spain. 

legiones  Gallicanae,  {Roman)  legions  stationed  in  Gaul. 


ADJECTIVES.  —  VERBS. 


113 


3.   Adjectives  derived  from  Adjectives. 

153.  Diminutives  in  -lus  sometimes  occur ;  as,  — 

parvolus,  little; 

misellus  (passer),  poor  little  {sparrow^  ; 

pauperculus,  needy. 

4.    Adjectives  derived  from  Adverbs. 

154.  These  end  in  -ernus,  -ternus,  -tinus,  -tinus  ;  as, 


hodiernus. 

of  to-day 

(hodie)  ; 

hesternus. 

of  yesterday 

(heri)  ; 

intestinus, 

interfial 

(intus)  ; 

diutinus, 

long-lasting 

(diu). 

C.    VERBS. 

1.    Verbs  derived  from  Verbs. 

155.  I.  Inceptives  OR  Inchoatives.  These  end  in -sco,  and  are 
formed  from  Present  Stems.  They  denote  the  beginning  of  an  action  ; 
as,— 

labasco,                   begin  to  totter  (from  labo) ; 

horresco,                 grow  rough  (from  horreo)  ; 

tremesco,                 begin  to  tremble  (from  tremo)  ; 

obdormisco,          fall  asleep  (from  dormio). 

2.  Frequentatives  or  Intensives.  These  denote  a  repeated 
or  energetic  action.  They  are  formed  from  the  Participial  Stem,  and 
end  in  -to  or  -so.  Those  derived  from  verbs  of  the  First  Conjugation 
end  in  -ito  (not  -ato,  as  we  should  expect).  Examples  of  Frequenta- 
tives are  — 


jacto,  toss  about ^  brandish 

curso,  run  hither  and  thither 

volito,      '  flit  about 


(from  jacio,  hurl)  ; 
(from  curro,  rwt)  ; 
(from  vol6,y?K). 


a.  Some  double  Frequentatives  occur ;  as,  — 

cantito,  sing  over  and  over  (Cantd)  ; 

cursito,  keep  running  about  (clirsS)  ; 

ventito,  keep  coming. 

b.  agit5,  set  in  motion,  is  formed  from  the  Present  Stem. 


1 14  WORD-FORMATION. 

3.    Desideratives.     These  denote  a  desh-e  to  do  something.     They 
are  formed  from  the  Participial  Stem,  and  end  in  -urio ;  as, — 
esurio,      desire  to  eat,  am  hungry  (edo)  ; 

parturio,  want  to  bring  forth,  am  in  labor  (pario) . 

2.    Verbs  derived  from  Nouns  and  Adjectives 
(Denominatives). 

156.  Denominatives  of  the  First  Conjugation  are  mostly  transitive, 
those  of  the  Second  exclusively  intransitive.  Those  of  the  Third  and 
Fourth  Conjugations  are  partly  transitive,  partly  intransitive.  Exam- 
ples are  — 

«)  From  Nouns  :  — 


frauds, 

defraud 

(fraus)  ; 

vestio. 

clothe 

(vestis)  ; 

floreo, 

bloom 

(flos). 

Adjectives 

\ :  — 

libero. 

free 

(liber)  ; 

saevio. 

be  fierce 

(saevus). 

D.     ADVERBS. 

I 


157.     I .   Adverbs  derived  from  verbs  are  formed  from  the  Participial 
Stem  by  means  of  the  suffix  -im  ;  as,  — 

certatim,      eiTiulously       (oerto)  ; 
cursim,  in  haste  (curro) ; 

statim,  immediately   (sto). 

2.    Adverbs  derived  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are  formed  :  — 
a^  With  the  suffixes  -tim  (-sim),  -atim;  as, — 
gradatim,  step  by  step ; 
paulatim,  gradually ; 
viritim,  man  by  man. 

b)  With  the  suffix  -tus  ;  as,  — 

antiquitus,  of  old ; 
xdidlcitwa,  fro7n  the  roots. 

c)  With  the  suffix  -ter ;  as,  — 

breviter,  briefly. 


COMPOUNDS.  115 


II.    COMPOUNDS. 

158.  I.  Compounds  are  formed  by  the  union  of  simple 
words.  The  second  member  usually  contains  the  essential 
fjieaning  of  the  compound ;  the  first  member  expresses 
some  modification  of  this. 

2.  Vowel  changes  often  occur  in  the  process  of  composition. 
Thus :  — 

a.  In  the  second  member  of  compounds.     (See  §  7.  i.) 

b.  The  final  vowel  of  the  stem  of  the  first  member  of  the  com- 
pound often  appears  as  i  where  we  should  expect  6  or  S; 
sometimes  it  is  dropped  altogether,  and  in  case  of  consonant 
stems  i  is  often  inserted  ;  as,  — 

signif er,  standard-bearer ; 

tubicen,  trii7npeter ; 

magnanimus,  high-tninded ] 

matricida,  7natricide.  ' 

159.  Examples  of  Compounds. 

1.  Nouns:  — 

a)  Preposition  +  Noun  ;  as,  — 

de-decus,  disgrace ; 
pro-avus,  great-grandfather. 

b)  Noun  +  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

agri-cola,  farmer ; 
f  ratri-cida,  fratricide. 

2.  Adjectives :  — 

«)    Preposition  +  Adjective  (or  Noun)  ;  as,  — 
per-magnus,  very  great -, 
sub-obscurus,  rather  obscure; 
a-mens,  frantic. 

b)  Adjective  +  Noun  ;  as, — 

magn-animus,  great-hearted; 
celeri-pes,  swift-footed. 

c)  Noun  +  Verb  Stem  ;  as,  — 

parti-ceps,  sharing; 
morti-fer,  death-dealing. 


Il6  WORD-FORMATION. 

3.  Verbs :  — 

The  second  member  is  always  a  verb.     The  first  may  be  — 

a)  A  Noun  ;  as,  — 

aedi-fico,  build. 

b)  An  Adjective ;  as,  — 

ampli-fico,  enlarge. 

c)  An  Adverb ;  as,  — 

male-dico,  rail  at. 

d)  Another  Verb  ;  as,  — 

cale-facio,  make  warm. 

e)  A  Preposition ;  as,  — 

ab-jungo,  detach ; 
re-f ero,  dring  back ; 
dis-cerno,  distinguish ; 
ex-specto,  await. 

Note.  —  Here  belong  the  so-called  Inseparable  Prepositions  :  — 

ambi-  (amb-),  around', 

dis-  (dir-,  di-),  apart,  asunder; 

•gox-,  forward ; 

red-  (re-),  back', 

sed-  (j&e-) ,  apart  from ; 

ve-,  without. 

4.  Adverbs :  — 

These  are  of  various  types ;  as,  — 
ante  a,  before ; 

ilico  (in  loco),  on  the  spot ; 
imprimis,  especially ; 
obviam,  in  the  way. 


ART 


V. 


SYNTAX. 

160.  Syntax  treats  of  the  use  of  words  in  sentences. 

Chapter    I.  —  Sentences. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF   SENTENCES. 

161.  Sentences  may  be  classified  as  follows :  — 

1 .  Declarative,  which  state  something ;  as,  — 

puer  scribit,  the  boy  is  writing. 

2.  Interrogative,  which  ask  a  question ;  as, — 

quid  puer  scribit,  what  is  the  boy  writing? 

3.  Exclamatory,  which  are  in  the  form  of  an  exclamation ;  as,  — 

quot  libros  scribit,  how  many  books  he  writes ! 

4.  Imperative,  which  express  a  command  or  an  admonition ;  as, — ■ 

scribe,  write ! 

FORM    OF   INTERROGATIVE    SENTENCES. 

162.  Questions  may  be  either  Word-Questions  or  Sen- 
tence-Questions. 

I.  Word-Questions.  These  are  introduced  by  the  various 
interrogative  pronouns  and  adverbs ;  such  as  —  quis,  qui, 
qualis,  quantus,  quot,  quotiens,  quo,  qua,  etc.      Thus  :  — 

quis  venit,  who  comes  f 
quam  diu  manebit,  how  long  will  he  stay  f 
117  • 


Il8  SYNTAX. 


2.  Sentence-Questions.     These  are  introduced  — 

a)  By  nonne  implying  the  answer  'yes ' ;  as,  — 
nonne  videtis,  do  you  not  see? 

b)  By  num  implying  the  answer  'no'' ;  as,  — 

num  exspectas,  do  you  expect  f  {i.e.  you  don'^t  expect^  doyouf) 

c)  By  the  enclitic  -ne,  appended  to  the  emphatic  word  (which 
usually  stands  first),  and  simply  asking  for  information ;  as,  — 
videsne,  do  you  see? 

A  question  introduced  by  -ne  may  receive  a  special  impli- 
cation from  the  context ;  as,  — 
sensistme,  did  you  not  perceive? 

d)  Sometimes  by  no  special  word,  particularly  in  expressions  of 
surprise  or  indignation  ;  as,  — 

tu  in  judicum  conspectum  venire  audes,  do  you  dare  to 
co7ne  into  the  presence  of  the  judges  ? 

3.  Rhetorical  Questions.  These  are  questions  merely  in 
form,  being  employed  to  express  an  emphatic  assertion ; 
as,  quia  dubitat,  who  doubts  ?  (^=  no  one  doubts). 

4.  Double  Questions.  Double  Questions  are  introduced 
by  the  following  particles  :  — 

utrum    ...    an; 

-ne an ; 

....   an. 

If  the  second  member  is  negative,  annon  (less  often  necne)  is  used. 
Examples :  — 

utrum  honestum  est  an  turpe,! 

honestumne  est  an  turpe,  >  is  it  honorable  or  base  ? 

honestum  est  an  turpe,  J 

suntne  di  annon,  are  there  gods  or  not  ? 

a.  An  was  not  originally  confined  to  double  questions,  but  in- 
troduced single  questions,  having  the  force  of  -ne,  nonne, 
or  num.  Traces  of  this  use  survive  in  classical  Latin ;  as, — 
A  rebus  gerendis  abstrahit  senectus.  Quibus?  An 
eis  quae  juventute  geruntur  et  viribus  ?  Old  age  (it  is 
alleged)  withdraws  men  from  active  pursuits.  From  what 
pursidts  ?  Is  it  not  jnerely  from  those  which  are  carried  on 
by  the  strength  of  youth  ? 


SIMPLE  AND   COMPOUND   SENTENCES.  II9 

5.   Answers. 

a.  The  answer  Yes  is  expressed  by  ita,  etiam,  vero, 
sane,  or  by  repetition  of  the  verb ;  as,  — 

*visne  locum  mutemus?'  'sane.'     '•Shall  we  change  the 

place  f '     '  Certainly.'' 
'■  estisne  vos  legati?  '  '  sumus.'   '  Are  you  envoys  ? '   *  Ves.'' 

b.  The  answer  No  is  expressed  by  non,  minime, 
minime  vero,  or  by  repeating  the  verb  with  a 
negative ;  as,  — 

'  jam  ea  praeteriit  ?  '     '•  non.'     <  Has  it  passed? '     '  No.'' 
'■  estne  f  rater  intus  ?  '   *  non  est.'   *  Is  your  brother  within  f ' 
'No.'' 

SUBJECT   AND    PREDICATE. 

163.  The  two  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  Sub- 
ject and  Predicate. 

The  Subject  is  that  concerning  which  something  is  said, 
asked,  etc.  The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  said,  asked, 
etc.,  concerning  the  Subject.  * 

SIMPLE   AND    COMPOUND    SENTENCES. 

164.  Sentences  containing  but  one  Subject  and  one 
Predicate  are  called  Simple  Sentences,  those  containing 
more  are  called  Compound  Sentences.  Thus  puer  libros 
legit,  the  boy  reads  books,  is  a  Simple  Sentence ;  but  puer 
libros  legit  et  epistulas  scribit,  the  boy  reads  books  and 
writes  letters,  is  a  Compound  Sentence.  The  different 
members  of  a  Compound  Sentence  are  called  Clauses. 

165.  Coordinate  and  Subordinate  Clauses.  Clauses  which 
stand  upon  an  equality  are  called  Coordinate;  a  Clause  dependent 
upon  another  is  called  Subordinate.  Thus  in  puer  libros  legit  et 
epistulas  scribit  the  two  clauses  are  Coordinate ;  but  in  puer  libros 
legit  quos  pater  scribit,  the  boy  reads  the  books  which  his  father  writes^ 
the  second  clause  is  Subordinate  to  the  first. 


I20  SYNTAX. 


Chapter  II. —  Syntax  of  Nouns, 

SUBJECT. 

166.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  Verb  (i.e.  any  form  of 
the  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  or  Imperative)  is  in  the  Nomi- 
native Case. 

1.  The  Subject  may  be  — 

a)  A  Noun  or  Pronoun;   as, — 
puer  scribit,  the  boy  writes ; 
hic  scribit,  th's  man  writes. 

b)  An  Infinitive  ;  as, — 

decdrum  est  pro  patria  xnori,  to  die  for  one's  country  is  a 
noble  thing. 

c)  A  Clause ;  as,  — 

opportune  aocidit  quod  vidisti,  it  happened  opportunely 
that  you  saw. 

2.  A  Personal  Pronoun  as  Subject  is  usually  implied  in  the  Verb, 
and  is  not  separately  expressed ;  as,. — 

scribo,  /  write ;  videt,  he  sees. 

a.    But  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  contrast  the  Pronoun  is 
expressed ;  as,  — 
ego  scribo  et  tu  legis,  Iwrite,  and  you  read. 

3.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  can  be  easily  supplied 
from  the  context,  especially  the  auxiliary  sum ;  as,  — 

recte  ille  {sc.  facit),  he  does  rightly ;  consul  profectus  (sc.  est),  the 
consul  set  out. 

PREDICATE   NOUNS. 

167.  A  Predicate  Noun  is  one  connected  with  the  Sub- 
ject by  some  form  of  the  verb  Sum  or  a  similar  verb.    , 

168.  A  Predicate  Noun  agrees  with  its  Subject  in 
v^ase ,    as, 

1  For  the  Predicate  Genitive,  see  \\  198,  3;  203,  5. 


PREDICATE  NOUNS.— APPOSITIVES.  121 

Cicero  orator  f uit,  Cicero  was  an  orator ; 
Numa  creatus  est  rex,  Nu7na  was  elected  king. 

1 .  When  possible,  the  Predicate  Noun  usually  agrees  with  its  Sub- 
ject in  Gender  also  ;  as,  — 

philosophia  est  vitae  m3.^i^tia.,  philosophy  is  the  guide  of  life. 

2.  Besides  sum,  the  verbs  most  frequently  accompanied  by  a  Predi- 
cate Noun  are  — 

^)  fio,  evado,  exsisto  ;  maneo  ;  videor ;  as,  — 

Croesus  non  seniper  mansit  rex,  Croesus  did  not  always 
remain  king. 

b)  Passive  verbs  of  making,  calling,  regarding,  etc. ;  as,  creor, 
appellor,  habeor  ;  as,  — 

Romulus  rex  appellatus  est,  Romulus  was  called  kifig ; 
habitus  est  deus,  he  was  regarded  as  a  god. 

APPOSITIVES. 

169.    I.    An  Appositive  is  a  Noun  explaining  or  defin- 
ing another  Noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing;  as, — ■ 

Cicero  consul,  Cicero,  the  Consul; 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  Rome.  . 

2.  An  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Case;  as, — 

opera  Ciceronis  oratoris,  the  works  of  Cicero,  the  orator ; 
apud  Herodotum,  patrem  historiae,  in  the  works  of  Herodotus,  the 
father  of  history. 

3.  When  possible,  the  Appositive  agrees  with  its  Subject  in  Gen- 
der also ;  as,  — 

assentatio  adjutrix  v\t\.bx\x.va.,  flattery ,  the  promoter  of  evils. 

4.  A   Locative  may  take  in  Apposition  the  Ablative  of  urbs  or 
oppidum,  with  or  without  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

Corinthi,  Achaiae  urbe,  or  in  Achaiae  urbe,  at  Corinth,  a  city  of 
Greece. 

5.  Partitive  Apposition.    A  Noun  denoting  a  whole  is  frequently 
followed  by  an  Appositive  denoting  a  part ;  as,  — 

milites,  fortissimus  quisque,  hostibus  restitgrunt,  the  soldiers,  all 
the  bravest  of  them,  resisted  the  enemy. 


122  SYNTAX. 


THE  CASES. 
THE  NOMINATIVE. 

170.  The  Nominative  is  confined  to  its  use  as  Subject, 
Appositive,  or  Predicate  Noun,  as  already  explained.  See 
§§  166-169. 

THE   VOCATIVE. 

171.  The  Vocative  is  the  Case  of  direct  address ;  as,  — 

credite  mihi,  judices,  believe  7ne^  judges. 

1.  By  a  species  of  attraction,  the  Nominative  is  occasionally  used 
for  the  Vocative,  especially  in  poetry  and  formal  prose ;  as,  audi  tii, 
populus  Albanus,  hear  ye^  Alban  people  I 

2.  Similarly  the  Appositive  of  a  Vocative  may,  in  poetry,  stand  in 
the  Nominative ;  as,  nate,  mea  magna  poteutia  solus,  O  son,  alone 
the  source  of  my  great  power. 

THE   ACCUSATIVE. 

172.  The  Accusative  is  the  Case  of  the  Direct  Object. 

173.  The  Direct  Object  may  express  either  of  the  two 
following  relations :  — 

A .  The  Person  or  Thing  Affected  by  the  action ;  as,  — 

consulem  interfecit,  he  slew  the  consul; 
lego  librum,  I  read  the  book. 

B.  The  Result  Produced  by  the  action ;  as,  — 

librum  scrips!,  I  wrote  a  book  {i.e.  produced  one)  ; 
templum  struit,  he  constructs  a  temple. 

174.  Verbs  that  admit  a  Direct  Object  of  either  of  these 
two  types  are  Transitive  Verbs. 

a.  Verbs  that  regularly  take  a  Direct  Object  are  sometimes  used 
without  it.  They  are  then  said  to  be  employed  absolutely; 
as, — 

rumor  est  meum  gnatiun  amare,  it  is  rumored  that  my 
son  is  in  love. 


THE  ACCUSATIVE.  1 23 

Accusative  of  the  Person  or  Thing  Affected. 

175.    I.    This  is  the  most  frequent  use   of   the    Accu- 
sative ;  as  in  — 

parentes  amamus,  we  love  our  parents  ; 
mare  aspicit,  he  gazes  at  the  sea. 

2.    The  following  classes  of  Verbs  taking  an  Accusative  of  this  kind 
are  worthy  of  note  :  — 

«)  Many  Intransitive  Verbs,  when  compounded  with  a  Preposi- 
tion, become  Transitive.     Thus  :  — 

i)  Compounds  of  circum,  praeter,  trans  ;  as, — 
hostes  circumstare,  to  surround  the  enemy ; 
urbem  praeterire,  to  pass  by  the  city ; 
muros  transcendere,  to  climb  over  the  walls. 

2)  Less  frequently,  compounds  of  ad,  per,  in,  sub  ;  as,  — 
adire  urbem,  to  visit  the  city  ; 
peragrare  Italiam,  to  travel  through  Italy ; 
inire  magistratum,  to  take  office ; 
subire  periculum,  to  undergo  danger. 

b)  Many  Verbs  expressing  emotions,  regularly  Intransitive,  have 
also  a  Transitive  use  ;  as,  — 

queror  fatum,  I  la?nent  7ny  fate ; 

doleo  ejus  mortem,  I  grieve  at  his  death ; 

rideo  tuam  stultitiam,  I  laugh  at  your  folly. 

So  also  lugeo,  maereo,  i7iotirn ;  gemo,  bemoan ;   horreo, 

shudder,  and  others. 

c)  The  impersonals  decet,  //  becomes ;  dedecet,  it  is  unbecom- 
ing; juvat,  it  pleases,  take  the  Accusative  of  the  Person 
Affected ;  as,  — 

me  decet  haec  dicere,  //  becomes  me  to  say  this. 

d)  In  poetry  many  Passive  Verbs,  in  imitation  of  Greek  usage, 
are  employed  as  Middles  (§  256,  i  ;  2),  and  take  the  Accu- 
sative as  Object;  as, — 

galeam  induitur,  he  puts  on  his  helmet ; 

cinctus  tempera  hedera,  having  bound  his  temples  with 

ivy ; 
nodo  sinus  collecta,  having  gathered  her  dress  in  a  knot. 


124  SYNTAX. 


Accusative  of  the  Result  Produced. 

176.    I.    The  ordinary  type  of  this  Accusative  is  seen  in 
such  expressions  as  — 

librum  scribo,  /  write  a  book  ; 
domum  aedifico,  /  dm7d  a  house. 

2.    Many  Verbs   usually   Intransitive   take   a  Neuter  Pronoun,   or 
Adjective,  as  an  Accusative  of  Result.     Thus  :  — 

a)  A  Neuter  Pronoun  ;  as,  — 

haec  gemebat,  he  made  these  moans ; 
idem  gloriari,  to  make  the  same  boast ; 
eadem  peccat,  he  makes  the  same  mistakes. 

b)  A  Neuter  Adjective,  —  particularly  Adjectives  of  nufnber  or 
amount,  —  multum,  multa,  pauca,  etc. ;   also  nihil ;  as,  — 

multa  egeo,  /  have  many  needs ; 
pauca  studet,  he  has  few  interests; 
multum  valet,  he  has  great  strength  ; 
nihil  peccat,  he  makes  no  mistake. 

Note.  —  In  poetry  other  Adjectives  are  freely  used  in  this  construction ;  as,  — 
minitantem  vana,  making  vain  threats  ; 
acerba  txxeiis,  giving  a  fierce  look  ; 
dulce  loquentem,  sweetly  talking. 

3-    The  adverbial  use  of  several  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives 
grows  out  of  this  Accusative  ;  as,  — 

multum  sunt  in  vSnatione,  they  are  much  eiigaged  in  hunting. 

a.    So  also  plurimum,  very  greatly;    plerumque,  generally; 
aliquid,  somewhat;  quid,  why?  nihil,  not  at  all;  etc. 

4.    Sometimes  an  Intransitive  Verb  takes  an  Accusative  of  Result 
which  is  of  kindred  etymology  with  the  Verb.     This  is  called  a  Cog- 
nate Accusative,  and  is  usually  modified  by  an  Adjective ;  as,  — 
sempiternam  servitutem  serviat,  let  him  serve  an  everlasting  slavery ; 
vitam  duram  vixi,  /  have  lived  a  hard  life. 

a.    Sometimes  the  Cognate  Accusative  is  not  of  kindred  ety- 
mology, but  merely  of  kindred  meaning ;  as,  — 
stadium  currit,  he  runs  a  race ; 
Olympia  vincit,  he  wins  an  Olympic  victory. 


THE  ACCUSATIVE.  12$ 

5.  The  Accusative  of  Result  occurs  also  after  Verbs  of  tastzn^"  a.nd 
smelling]  as, — 

piscis  mare  sapit,  the  fish  tastes  of  the  sea ; 

orationes  antiquitatem  redolent,  the  speeches  smack  of  the  past. 

•  Tw^o  Accusatives  —  Direct  Object  and  Predicate  Accusative. 

177.  I.  Many  Verbs  of  Making,  Choosing,  Calling, 
Showing,  and  the  like,  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of  the 
Person  or  Thing  Affected,  the  other  a  Predicate  Accusa- 
tive; as, — 

me  heredem  fecit,  he  7Hade  me  heir. 

Here  me  is  Direct  Object,  heredem  Predicate  Accusative. 

So  also  — 

eum  judicem  cepere,  they  took  hitn  as  judge', 
urbem  Romam  vocavit,  he  called  the  city  Rome', 
se  virum  praestitit,  he  showed  himself  a  man. 

2.  The  Predicate  Accusative  may  be  an  Adjective  as  well  as  a  Noun ; 
as,— 

homines  caecos  reddit  cupiditas,  covetousness  renders  men  blind', 
Apollo  Socratem  sapientissimum  judicavit,  Apollo  adjudged  Soc- 
rates the  wisest  man. 

a.   Some  Verbs,  as  reddo,  usually  admit  only  an  Adjective  as  the  Predicate 
Accusative. 

3.  In  the  Passive  the  Direct  Object  becomes  the  Subject,  and  the 
Predicate  Accusative  becomes  Predicate  Nominative  (§  168.  2.  <^)  ;  as,-- 

urbs  Roma  vocata  est,  the  city  was  called  Rome. 

a.   Not  all  Verbs  admit  the  Passive  construction ;  reddo  and  efQcio,  for 
example,  never  take  it. 

Two  Accusatives — ;  Person  and  Thing. 

178.  I.  Some  Verbs  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of 
the  Person  Affected,  the  other  of  the  Result  Produced. 
Thus :  — 

^)   Vtrhs  oi  requesting  2LTid  demanding;  as, — 
otium'  divos  rogat,  he  asks  the  gods  for  rest ; 
me  duas  orationes  postulSs,  you  demand  two  speeches  of 
me. 


126  SYNTAX. 


So  also  oro,  posco,   reposco,  exposco,   flagito,   though 
some  of  these  prefer  the  Ablative  with  ab  to  the  Accusative 
of  the  Person  ;  as,  — 
opera  a  te  posoo,  /  demand  aid  of  you. 

b)  Verbs  of  teaching  (doceo  and  its  compounds)  ;  as,  — 
te  litter  as  doceo,  I  teach  you  yoiir  letters. 

c)  Y trhs  oi  inquiring ;  as, — 
te  haec  rogo,  I  ask  you  this ; 

te  sententiam  rogo,  I  ask  you  your  opinion. 

a)  Several  Special  Verbs  ;  viz.  moneo,  admoneo,  commoneo, 
cogo,  accuso,  arguo,  and  a  few  others.  These  admit  only 
a  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  as  Accusative  of  the  Thing  ; 
as,  — 

hoc  te  moneo,  I  give  you  this  advice; 
me  id  accusas,  you  bring  this  accusation  against  me ; 
id  cogit  nos  natura,  nature  compels  us  (to)  this. 

e)  One  Verb  of  conceali?ig,  celo  ;  as,  — 

non  te  celavi  sermonem,  /  have  not  concealed  the  conver- 
sation from  you. 

2.  In  the  Passive  construction  the  Accusative  of  the  Person  becomes 
the  Subject,  and  the  Accusative  of  the  Thing  is  retained  ;  as,  — 

omnes  artes  edoctus  est,  he  was  taught  all  accomplishments ; 
rogatus  sum  sententiam,  /  was  asked  jny  opinion  ; 
multa  admonemur,  we  are  given  many  ad7nonitions . 

a.   Only  a  few  Verbs  admit  the  Passive  construction. 

Two  Accusatives  -with  Compounds. 

179.  I.  Transitive  compounds  of  trans  may  take  two 
Accusatives,  one  dependent  upon  the  Verb,  the  other 
upon  the  Preposition  ;  as,  — 

milites  flumen  transportat,  he  leads  his  soldiers  across  the  river. 

2.  With  other  compounds  this  construction  is  rare. 

3.  In  the  Passive  the  Accusative  dependent  upon  the  preposition  is 
retained ;  as,  —  ■ 

milites  flumen  traducebantur,  the  soldiers  were  led  across  the  river. 


THE  ACCUSATIVE.  \^J 

Synecdochical  (or  Greek)  Accusative. 

180.  I .    The  Synecdochical  (or  Greek)  Accusative  denotes  the  pari 
to  which  an  action  or  quahty  refers  ;  as,  — 

tremit  arttis,  literally,  he  trembles  as  to  his  limbs,  i.e.  his  limbs  tremble; 
ntida  genu,  lit.  bare  as  to  the  knee,  i.e.  witH  knee  bare ;  * 
mantis  revinctus,  lit.  tied  as  to  the  hands,  i.e.  with  hands  tied. 

2.   Note  that  this  construction  — 

a)  Is  borrowed  from  the  Greek. 

b)  Is  chiefly  confined  to  poetry. 

c)  Usually  refers  to  a  part  of  the  body. 

d)  Is  used  with  Adjectives  as  well  as  Verbs. 

Accusative  of  Time  and  Space. 

181.  I.  Duration   of   Time  and    Extent  of  Space  are 
denoted  by  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 

quadraginta  annos  vixit,  he  lived  forty  years  ; 

hie  locus  passus  sescentos  aberat,  this  place  was  six  hundred  paces 

away ; 
arbores  quinquaginta  pedes  altae,  trees  fifty  feet  high ; 
abhinc  septem  annos,  seven  years  ago. 

2.    Emphasis  is  sometimes  added  by  using  the  Preposition  per;  as, 
per  biennium  laboravi,  I  toiled  throughout  two  years. 

Accusative  of  Limit  of  Motion. 

182.  I.    The  Accusative  of  Limit  of  Motion  is  used  — 
^)  With  names  of  Towns,  Small  Islands,  and  Peninsulas ;  as,  — 

Romam  veni,  /  ca^/^e  to  Rome ; 

Athenas  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  for  Athens', 

Delum  perveni,  I  arrived  at  Delos. 

b)    With  domum,  domos,  rus  ;  as, — 

domum  revertitur,  he  returns  hojtie ; 
rus  ibo,  /  shall  go  to  the  coimtry. 

Note. — When  domus  means  house  {i.e.  building),  it  takes  a  prep- 
osition; as, — 

in  domum  veterem  remigrare,  to  move  back  to  an  old  house. 


128  SYNTAX. 


2.  Other  designations  of  place  than  those  above  mentioned  require 
a  Preposition  to  denote  Limit  of  Motion  ;  as,  — 

ad  Italiam  venit,  he  came  to  Italy. 

a.  The  Preposition  is  also  customary  with  the  Accusatives 
urbem  or  oppidum  when  they  stand  in  apposition  with  the 
name  of  a  town  ;  as,  — 

Thalam,  in  oppidum  magnum,  to  Thala,  a  large  town ; 
Genavam  ad  oppidum,  to  the  town  Geneva. 

b.  The  name  of  a  town  denoting  limit  of  motion  may  be  com- 
bined with  the  name  of  a  country  or  other  word  dependent 
upon  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

Thurios  in  Italiam  pervectus,  ca?'ried  to  Thurii  in  Italy ; 
cum  Acen  ad  exercitum  venisset,  when  he  had  come  to 
the  army  at  Ace. 

3.  To  denote  toward^  to  the  vicinity  of,  in  the  vicinity  of.,  ad  is  used ; 
as, — 

ad  Tarentum  veni,  /  came  to  the  vicinity  of  Tarentum  ; 

ad  Cannas  pugna  facta  est,  a  battle  was  fought  near  Cannae. 

4.  In  poetry  the  Accusative  of  any  noun  denoting  a  place  may  be 
used  without  a  preposition  to  express  the  limit  of  motion  ;  as,  — 

Italiam  venit,  he  cattie  to  Italy. 

5.  The  goal  notion  seems  to  represent  the  original  function  of  the 
Accusative  Case.  Traces  of  this  primitive  force  are  recognizable  in  the 
phrase  infitias  ire,  to  deny  (lit.  to  go  to  a  denial),  and  a  few  other 
similar  expressions. 

Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

183.  The  Accusative,  generally  modified  by  an  Adjec- 
tive, is  used  in  Exclamations  ;  as,  — 

me  miserum,  ah,  wretched  me ! 

O  fallacem  spem,  oh,  deceptive  hope  I 

Accusative  as  Subject  of  the  Infinitive. 

184.  The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  put  in  the  Accusa- 
tive ;  as,  — 

video  hominem  abire,  I  see  that  the  man  is  going  away. 


THE  ACCUSATIVE.  —  THE  DATIVE.  1 29 

Other  Uses  of  the  Accusative. 

185.  Here  belong  — 

1.  Some  Accusatives  which  were  originally  Appositives  ;  viz. — 

id  genus,  of  that  kind ;  as,  homines  id  genus,  men  of  that  kind 
(originally  homines,  id  genus  hominum,  men^  that  kind 
of  men)  ; 

virile  secus,  muliebre  secus,  of  the  7nale  sex^  of  the  female  sex; 

meam  vicem,  tuam  vicem,  etc.,  for  my  part,  etc. ; 

bonam  partem,  magnam  partem,  in  large  part ; 

maximam  partem,  for  the  most  part. 

2.  Some  phrases  of  doubtful  origin  ;  as,  — 

id  temporis,  at  that  time ;  quod  si,  dut  if; 

id  aetatis,  at  that  time ;  cetera,  in  other  respects. 

THE   DATIVE. 

186.  The  Dative  case,  in  general,  expresses  relations 
which  are  designated  in  English  by  the  prepositions  to 
and  for. 

Dative  of  Indirect  Object. 

187.  The  commonest  use  of  the  Dative  is  to  denote  the 
person  to  whom  something  is  given,  said,  or  done.   Thus  :  — 

I.  With  transitive  verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accu- 
sative ;  as,  — 

hanc  pecuniam  mihi  dat,  he  gives  me  this  money ; 
haec  nobis  dixit,  he  said  this  to  us. 

a.   Some     verbs    which     take    this    construction    (particularly 
dono  and  circumdo)  admit  also  the  Accusative  of  the  per- 
son along  with  the  Ablative  of  the  thing.     Thus  :  — 
Either  Themistocli  munera  donavit,  he  presented  gifts  to 

Themistocles,  or 
Themistoclem  mijneribus  donavit,  he  presented  Themis- 
tocles with  gifts ; 
urbi  muros  circumdat,  he  btiilds  walls  around  the  city,  or 
urbem  muris  circumdat,  he  surrounds  the  city  with  walls. 


I30  SYNTAX. 


II.  With  many  intransitive  verbs;  as,  — 

nulli  labor!  cedit,  he  yields  to  no  labor. 

a.  Here  belong  many  verbs  signifying  favor^  help,  injure, 
please,  displease,  trust,  distrust,  command,  obey,  serve,  resist, 
indulge,  spare,  pardon,  envy,  threaten,  be  angry,  believe, 
persuade,  and  the  like  ;  as,  — 

Caesar  popularibus  favet,  Caesar  favors  (i.e.  is  favor- 
able to)  the  popular  party ; 

amicis  conf ido,  /  trust  {to)  my  friends ; 

Orgetorix  Helvetiis  persuasit,  Orgetorix  persuaded 
{made  it  acceptable  to)  the  Helvetians ; 

bonis  nooet  qui  mails  parcit,  he  injures  {does  harm  to) 
the  good,  who  spares  the  bad. 

Note. —  It  is  to  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  verbs  do  not  take  the  Dative  by 
virtue  of  their  apparent  Enghsh  equivalence,  but  simply  because  they  are  m transi- 
tive, and  adapted  to  an  indirect  object.  Some  verbs  of  the  same  apparent  English 
equivalence  are  transitive  and  govern  the  Accusative;  as,  juvo,  laed5,  delecto. 
Thus :  audentes  deus  juvat,  God  helps  the  bold;  nerainem  laesit,  he 
injured  no  one. 

b.  Verbs  of  this  class  are  used  in  the  passive  only  impersonally ; 
as,  — 

tibi  parcitur,  you  are  spared; 

mihi  persuadetur,  I  am  being  persuaded] 

ei  invidetur,  he  is  envied. 

c.  Some  of  the  foregoing  verbs  admit  also  a  Direct  Object  in  connection 
with  the  Dative ;  as,  — 

mihi   mortem   mlnitatur,   he    threatens  me  with  death   {threatens 
death  to  me) . 

III.  With  many  verbs  compounded  with  the  preposi- 
tions :  ad,  ante,  circum,  com,^  in,  inter,  ob,  post,  prae,  pro, 
sub,  super. 

These  verbs  fall  into  two  main  classes,  — 
I .    Many  simple  verbs  which  cannot  take  a  Dative  of  the  indirect 
object  become  capable  of  doing  so  when  compounded  with  a  preposi- 
tion ;  as,  — 

afflictis  succurrit,  he  helps  the  afflicted; 

exercitui  praef uit,  he  was  in^  command  of  the  army ; 

intersum  consiliis,  /  share  in  the  deliberations. 

1  Many  such  verbs  were  originally  intransitive  in  English  also,  and  once  gov- 
erned the  Dative.        "  This  was  the  original  form  of  the  preposition  cum. 


THE  DATIVE.  TJI 


2.  Many  transitive  verbs  which  take  only  a  direct  object  become 
capable,  when  compounded,  of  taking  a  dative  also  as  indirect 
object;  as, — 

pecuniae  pudorem  anteponit,  he  puts  honor  before  money ; 
inicere  spem  amicis,  to  inspire  hope  in  one'^s  frie7ids  ; 
munitioni  Labienum  praefecit,  he  put  Labienus  in  charge  of  the 
fortifications. 

Dative  of  Reference. 

188,  I.  The  Dative  of  Reference  denotes  the  person  to 
whom  a  statement  refers^  of  whom  it  is  true^  or  to  whom,  it 
is  of  interest ;  as,  — 

mihi  ante  ooulos  versaris,  jj/^?/  hover  before  my  eyes  (lit.  hover  before 

the  eyes  to  me^  ; 
illi  severitas  amorem  non  deminuit,  in  his  case  severity  did  not 

diminish  love  (lit.  to  him  severity  did  not  dijninish')  ; 
interoludere  inimiois  commeatuui,  to  cut  off  the  supplies  of  the 

enemy. 

a.  Note  the  phrase  alicui  interdicere  aqua  et  igni,  to  interdict  one 
from  fire  and  water. 

Note.  —  The  Dative  of  Reference,  unlike  the  Dative  of  Indirect  Object,  does 
not  modify  the  verb,  but  rather  the  sentence  as  a  whole.  It  is  often  used  where, 
according  to  the  English  idiom,  we  should  expect  a  Genitive ;  so  in  the  first  and 
third  of  the  above  examples. 

2.    Special  varieties  of  the  Dative  of  Reference  are  — 
^)    Dative    of  the   Local   Standpoint.     This  is  regularly  a 
participle;  as, — 

oppidum  primum  Thessaliae  venientibus  ab  Epiro,  the 

first  town  of  Thessaly  as  you  come  from  Epirus  (lit. 
to  those  C07ning  from  Epirus') . 

b)  Ethical  Dative.  This  name  is  given  to  those  Dative  con- 
structions of  the  personal  pronouns  in  which  the  connection 
of  the  Dative  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence  is  of  the  very 
slightest  sort ;  as,  — 

tu  mihi  istius  audaoiam  dSf  endis  ?  tell  me,  do  you  defend 

that  man''s  audacity  f 
quid  mihi  Celsus  agit  ?  what  is  my  Celsus  doing  f 


132  SYNTAX. 


c)  Dative  of  Person  Judging ;  as,  — 

erit  ille  mihi  semper  deus,  ke  will  always  be  a  god  to  me 

{i.e.  in  my  opinion)  ; 
quae   ista   servitus   tarn   claro  homini,  how  can  that  be 

slavery  to  so  illustrious  a  rnan  (i.e.  to  his  mind) ! 

d)  Dative  of  Separation.  Some  verbs  of  taking  away, 
especially  compounds  of  ab,  de,  ex,  ad,  govern  a  Dative  of 
the  person,  less  often  of  the  thing ;  as,  — 

hondrem   detraxerunt   homini,   they  took  away  the  honor 

from  the  man ; 
Caesar  regi  tetrarchiam  eripuit,  Caesar  took  the  tetrarchy 

away  from  the  king ; 
silici  sointillam  exoudit,  he  struck  a  spark  from  the  flint. 

Dative   of  Agency. 

189.  The  Dative  is  used  to  denote  agency  — 

1 .  Regularly  with  the  Gerundive ;  as,  — 

haec  nobis  agenda  sunt,  these  things  must  be  done  by  us ; 
mihi  eundum  est,  /  must  go  (lit.  it  must  be  gone  by  me). 

a.  To  avoid  ambiguity,  a  with  the  Ablative  is   sometimes  used  with  the 
Gerundive;  as, — 
hostibus  a  nobis  parcendum  est,  ike  enemy  must  be  spared  by  us. 

2.  Much  less  frequently  with  the  compound  tenses  of  the  passive 
voice  and  the  perfect  passive  participle  ;  as,  — 

disputatio  quae  mihi  nuper  habit  a  est,  the  discussion  which  was 
recently  conducted  by  me. 

3.  Rarely  with  the  uncompounded  tenses  of  the  passive  ;  as,  — 
honesta  bonis  viris  quaeruntur,  noble  ends  are  sought  by  good  men. 

Dative  of  Possession. 

190.  The  Dative  of  Possession  occurs  with  the  verb  esse 
in  such  expressions  as  :  — 

mihi  est  liber,  /  have  a  book ; 

mihi  nomen  est  Marcus,  /  have  the  name  Marcus. 

I.   But  with  nomen  est  the  name  is  more  commonly  attracted  into 
the  Dative ;  as,  mihi  Marco  nomen  est. 


THE  DATIVE.  1 33 


Dative  of  Purpose  or  Tendency. 

191.  The  Dative  of  Purpose  or  Tendency  designates 
the  end  toward  which  an  action  is  directed  or  the  direction  in 
which  it  tends.     It  is  used  — 

1 .  Unaccompanied  by  another  Dative ;  as,  — 
castris  locum  deligere,  to  choose  a  place  for  a  camp  ; 

legiones  praesidio  relinquere,  to  leave  the  legions  as  a  guard  (lit. 

for  a  guard  )  ; 
receptui  canere,  to  sound  the  signal  for  a  retreat. 

2.  Much  more  frequently  in  connection  with  another  Dative  of  the 
person :  — 

a)  Especially  with  some  form  of  esse  ;  as,  — 

fortunae  tuae  mihi  curae  Bunt,  your  fortunes  are  a  care  to 

me  {lit.  for  a  care)  ; 
quibus  sunt  odio,  to  whom  they  are  an  object  of  hatred', 
cui  bono  ?  to  whom  is  it  of  advantage  ? 

b)  With  other  verbs  ;  as,  — 

hos  tibi    muneri    misit,  he  has  sent  these  to  you  for  a 

present ; 
Pausanias  Atticis  venit  auxilio,  Pausanias  came  to  the 

aid  of  the  Athenians  (lit.  to  the  Athenians  for  aid). 

3.  In  connection  with  the  Gerundive  ;   as, — 

decemviri  legibus  scribundis,  decemvirs  for  codifying  the  laws; 
me  gerendo  bello  ducem  creavere,  me  they  have  made  leader  for 
carrying  on  the  war. 

Note.  —  This  construction  with  the  gerundive  is  not  common  till  Livy. 

Dative  with  Adjectives. 

192.  The  use  of  the  Dative  with  Adjectives  corresponds 
very  closely  to  its  use  with  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

I.  Corresponding  to  the  Dative  of  Indirect  Object  it  occurs  with 
adjectives  signifying :  friendly,  unfriendly,  similar,  dissimilar,  equal, 
near,  related  to,  etc. ;  as,  — 

mihi  inimicus,  hostile  to  me ; 

sunt  proximi  Germanis,  they  are  next  to  the  Germans ; 

noxiae  poena  par  esto,  let  the  penalty  be  equal  to  the  damage. 


134  SYNTAX. 


a.  For    propior    and    proximus    with    the   Accusative,   see 

§141,3- 
2.    Corresponding  to  the  Dative  of  Purpose,  the  Dative  occurs  with 
adjectives  signifying :  suitable,  adapted^  fit ;  as, — 

castris  idoneus  locus,  a  place  fit  for  a  camp  ; 
apta  dies  sacriflcio,  a  day  suitable  for  a  sacrifice. 

Note.  —  Adjectives  of  this  last  class  often  take  the  Accusative  with  ad. 

Dative  of  Direction. 

193.  In  the  poets  the  Dative  is  occasionally  used  to  denote  the 
direction  of  motion  ;  as,  — 

it  clamor  caelo,  tke  shout  goes  heavenward', 
cineres  rivo  fluent!  jace,  cast  the  ashes  toward  a  flowing  stream. 
I.    By  an  extension  of  this  construction  the  poets  sometimes  use  the 
Dative  to  denote  the  limit  of  motion ;  as,  — 

dum  Latio  deos  inferret,  till  he  should  bring  his  gods  to  Latium. 

THE   GENITIVE. 

194.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  Nouns,  Adjectives,  and 
Verbs. 

GENITIVE  WITH  NOUNS. 

195.  With  Nouns  the  Genitive  is  the  case  which  defines 
the  meaning  of  the  limited  noun  more  closely.  This  relation  is 
generally  indicated  in  English  by  the  preposition  of.  There 
are  the  following  varieties  of  the  Genitive  with  Nouns :  — 

Genitive  of  Origin,  Objective  Genitive, 

Genitive  of  Material,  Genitive  of  the  Whole, 

Genitive  of  Possession,  Appositional  Genitive, 

Subjective  Genitive,  Genitive  of  Quality. 

196.  Genitive  of  Origin  ;  as,  — 

Marcl  filius,  the  son  of  Marcus., 

197.  Genitive  of  Material ;  as,  — 

talentum  auri,  a  talent  of  gold ; 
acervus  frumenti,  a  pile  of  grain. 


THE   DATIVE.— THE   GENITIVE.  I35 

198.  Genitive  of  Possession  or  Ow^nership  ;  as, — 

domus  Ciceronis,  Cicero's  house. 

1.  Here  belongs  the  Genitive  with  causa  and  gratia.     The  Geni- 
tive always  precedes  ;  as,  — 

\iorcL\vi\iTCi  C2i\is>2i,  for  the  sake  of  men', 

meorum  amicorum  gratia,  y^r  the  sake  of  my  friends. 

2.  The  Possessive  Genitive  is   often  used  predicatively,  especially 
with  esse  and  fieri ;  as,  — 

domus  est  regis,  the  house  is  the  king's ; 

stulti  est  in  err  ore  manere,  it  is  (the  /fart)  of  a  fool  to  rertiain  in 
error  ; 

de  bello  judicium  imperatoris  est,  non  militum,  the  decision  con- 
cerning war  belongs  to  the  general,  not  to  the  soldiers. 

a.  For  the  difference  in  force  between  the  Possessive  Genitive  and  the  Dative  of 
Possession,  see  \  359,  i. 

199.  Subjective  Genitive.     This  denotes  the  person  who  makes 
or  produces  something  or  who  has  a  feeling ;  as,  — 

dicta  Platonis,  the  utterances  of  Plato ; 
timores  liberorum,  the  fears  of  the  children. 

200.  Objective  Genitive.     This  denotes  the  object  of  an  action 
or  feeling;  as, — 

metus  deorum,  the  fear  of  the  gods  ', 

amor  libertatis,  love  of  liberty ; 

consuetude  bonorum  hominum,  intercourse  with  good  men. 

I.    This  relation  is  often  expressed  by  means  of  prepositions  ;  as, — 
amor  erga  parentes,  love  toward  one''s  parents. 

201.  Genitive    of   the    "Whole.      This   designates  the  whole  of 
which  a  part  is  taken.     It  is  used  — 

I.    With  Nouns,  Pronouns,  Comparatives,  Superlatives,  and  Ordinal 
Numerals ;  as,  — 

magna  pars  hominum,  a  great  part  of  mankind; 

duo  milia  peditum,  two  thousand  foot-soldiers ; 

quis  mortalium,  who  of  mortals  f 

major  fratrum,  the  elder  of  the  brothers ; 

gens  maxima  German  orum,  the  largest  tribe  of  the  Germans; 

primuB  omnium,  the  frst  of  all. 


136  SYNTAX. 


a.  Yet  instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole  we  often  find  ex  or  de  with 
the  Ablative,  regularly  so  with  Cardinal  numbers  and  quidain ;  as, — 
fldelissimus  de  servis,  the  most  trusty  of  the  slaves  ; 

quidain  ex  amicis,  certain  of  his  friends  ; 
unus  ex  militibus,  07ie  of  the  soldiers. 

b.  In  English  we  often  use  of  where  there  is  no  relation  of  whole  to  part. 
In  such  cases  the  Latin  is  more  exact,  and  does  not  use  the  Genitive ; 
as, — 

quot  VOS  estis,  how  many  of  you  are  there  ? 

trecenti  conjuravimus,  three   hundred  of  us  have  conspired  {i.  e. 
we,  three  hundred  in  number). 

2.  The  Genitive  of  the  Whole  is  used  also  with  the  Nominative  or 
Accusative  Singular  Neuter  of  Pronouns,  or  of  Adjectives  used  sub- 
stantively; also  with  the  Adverbs  parum,  satis,  and  partim  when 
used  substantively ;  as,  — 

quid  consili,  what  purpose  ? 

tantum  cibi,  so  much  food; 

plus  auctdritatis,  7nore  authority ; 

minus  lab  oris,  less  labor  ] 

satis  pecuniae,  enough  money; 

parum  industriae,  too  little  industry. 

a.  An  Adjective  of  the  second  declension  used  substantively  may  be  em- 
ployed as  a  Genitive  of  the  Whole ;  as,  nihil  boni,  nothing  good. 

b.  But  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  agree  directly  with  the  noun  they 
limit;  as,  nihil  dulcius,  nothing  sweeter. 

3.  Occasionally  we  find  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole  dependent  upon 
Adverbs  of  place  ;  as,  — 

ubi  terrarum  ?    ubi  gentium  ?  where  in  the  world  f 

a.  By  an  extension  of  this  usage  the  Genitive  sometimes  occurs  in  depend- 
ence upon  pridie  and  postridie,  but  only  in  the  phrases  pridie 
ejus  diei,  on  the  day  before  that ;  postridie  ejus  diei,  on  the  day 

after  that. 

202.  Appositional  Genitive.  The  Genitive  sometimes  has  the 
force  of  an  appositive  ;  as,  — 

nomen  regis,  the  name  of  king ; 
poena  mortis,  the  penalty  of  death; 
ars  scribendi,  the  art  of  writing. 

203.  Genitive  of  Quality.  The  Genitive  modified  by  an  Adjec- 
tive is  used  to  denote  quality.  This  construction  presents  several 
varieties.     Thus  it  is  used  — 


THE   GENITIVE.  1 37 


1 .  To  denote  some  internal  or  permanent  characteristic  of  a  person 
or  thing ;  as,  — 

vir  magnae  virtutis,  a  7nan  of  great  virtue ; 
rationes  ejus  modi,  considerations  of  that  sort. 

a.  Only  a  limited  number  of  Adjectives  occur  in  this  construction,  chiefly 
mag-nus,  maximus,  summus,  tantus,  along  with  ejus. 

2.  To  denote  measure  {breadth,  length,  etc.')  ;  as, — 

fossa  quindecim  pedum,  a  trench  fifteen  feet  wide  (or  deep)  ; 
exsilium  deoem  anuorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years. 

3.  Equivalent  to  the  Genitive  of  Quality  (though  probably  of  different 
origin)  are  the  Genitives  tanti,  quanti,  parvi,  magni,  minoris,  pluris, 
minimi,  plurimi,  maximi.  These  are  used  predicatively  to  denote 
indefinite  value ;  as,  — 

nulla  studia  tanti  sunt,  no  studies  are  of  so  nnich  value ; 

magni  opera  ejus  existimata  est,  his  assistance  was  highly  esteemed. 

4.  By  an  extension  of  the  notion  of  value,  quanti,  tanti,  pluris, 
and  minoris  are  also  used  with  verbs  of  buying  and  sellifig,  to  denote 
indefinite  price ;  as,  — 

quanti  aedes  emisti,  at  how  high  a  price  did  you  purchase  the  house  f 

5.  Any  of  the  above  varieties  of  the  Genitive  of  Quality  may  be 
used  predicatively;  as, — 

tantae  molis  erat  Romanam  condere  gentem,  of  so  great  difficulty 
was  it  to  found  the  Roman  race. 

GENITIVE   WITH   ADJECTIVES. 

204.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  many  Adjectives  to 
limit  the  extent  of  their  application.     Thus  :  — 

I .   With  adjectives  signifying  desire,  knowledge,  familiarity,  mem- 
ory,  participation,  power,  fullness,  and  their  opposites  ;  as,  — 
studiosus  disoendi,  desirous  of  learning', 
peritus  belli,  skilled  iii  war ; 
insuetus  laboris,  unused  to  toil ; 

immemor  mandati  tui,  unmindful  of  your  commission ; 
plena  perioulorum  est  vita,  life  is  full  of  dangers, 
a.  Some  participles  used  adjectively  also  take  the  Genitive ;  as,  — 

dilig-ens  veritatis,/i7«d?  of  truth  ; 

amans  patriae,  devoted  to  one's  country. 


138  SYNTAX. 


2.  Sometimes  with  proprius  and  communis  ;  as, — 

viri  propria  est  fortitude,  bravery  is  characteristic  of  a  man. 
memoria  est  communis  omnium  artium,  memory  is  common  to  all 

professions. 

a.  proprius  and  comraunis  are  also  construed  with  the  Dative. 

3.  With  similis  the  Genitive  is  the  commoner  construction  in 
Cicero,  when  the  reference  is  to  living  objects ;  as,  — 

filius  patris  simillimus  est,  the  son  is  exactly  like  his  father; 
mei  similis,  like  me  \  vestri  similis,  like  you. 

When  the  reference  is  to  things,  both  Genitive  and  Dative  occur ;  as,  — 
mors  somno  (or  somni)  similis  est,  death  is  like  sleep. 

4.  In  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers  the  use  of  the  Genitive  with  Adjectives 
is  extended  far  beyond  earher  limits;  as,  atrox  2^n\vc^, fierce  of  temper ;  incer- 
tus  consili,  undecided  in  purpose. 

GENITIVE   WITH    VERBS. 

205.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  the  following  classes  of 
Verbs :  — 

Memini,  Reminiscor,  Obliviscor. 

206.  I.    When  referring  to  Persons  — 

a.  mem.ini  always  takes  the  Genitive  of  personal  or  reflexive 
pronouns ;  as,  — 

mei  m.emineris,  remember  me  ! 
nostri  meminit,  he  reinembers  us. 

With  other  words  denoting  persons  memini  takes  the  Accusative, 
rarely  the  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

SuUam  memini,  /  recall  Sulla ; 
vivorum  memini,  /  remember  the  living. 

b.  obliviscor  regularly  takes  the  Genitive  ;  as, — 
Epicuri  non  licet  oblivisci,  we  mustnH  forget  Epicurus. 

1.  When  referring  to  Things,  memini,  reminiscor,  oblivis- 
cor take  sometimes  the  Genitive,  sometimes  the  Accusative,  without 
difference  of  meaning ;  as,  — 

animus  praeteritorum  meminit,  the  mind  remetnbers  the  past ; 

meministine  nomina,  do  you  remember  the  names  ? 

reminiscere  veteris  incommodi,  remember  the  former  disaster  : 

reminiscens  acerbitatem,  re7nembering  the  bitterness. 


THE   GENITIVE.  1 39 


a.  But  neuter  pronouns,  and  adjectives  used  substantively,  regularly  stand 
in  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 
haec  memini,  /  reynember  this ; 
multa  reminiscor,  /  remember  many  things. 

3.  The  phrase  mihi  (tibi,  etc.)  in  mentem  venit,  following  the  analogy  of 
memini,  takes  the  Genitive ;  as, — 

mihi  patriae  veniebat  in  mentem,  /  remembered  my  country. 

Admoneo,  Commoneo,  Commonefacio. 

207.  These  verbs,  in  addition  to  an  Accusative  of  the 
person,  occasionally  take  a  Genitive  of  the  thing;  as, — 

te   veteris   amicitiae   commonefacio,   /  remind  you    of  our   old 

friendship . 

a.  But  more  frequently  (in  Cicero  almost  invariably)  these  verbs  take  de 
with  the  Ablative ;  as,  — 

me  admones  de  ^ovovq,  you  remind  me  of  your  sister. 

b.  A  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective  used  substantively  regularly  stands   in 
the  Accusative  (178.  1.  d)\  as, — 

te  hoc  admoneo,  I  give  you  this  warning. 

Verbs  of  Judicial  Action. 

208.  I.    Verbs  of  Accusing,  Convicting,  Acquitting  take 
the  Genitive  of  the  charge  ;  as,  — 

me  fiirti  accusat,  he  accuses  me  of  theft ; 

Verrem  avaritiae  coarguit,  he  convicts  Verres  of  avarice  ^ 

impietatis  absolutus  est,  he  was  acquitted  of  blasphemy. 

2.    Verbs  of  Condemning  take  — 

a.  The  Genitive  of  the  charge ;  as,  — 

pecuniae  publicae  condemnatus,  condemned  (on  the 
cha?ge)  of  embezzlement  (lit.  public  7noney')  ; 

capitis  damnatus,  condemned  on  a  capital  charge  (lit.  on 
a  charge  involving  his  head). 

b.  The  Ablative  of  the  penalty ;  as,  — 

capite  damnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  to  death ; 

mille  nummis  damnatus  est,  he  was  condemned  (to  pay) 

a  thousand  sesterces  (lit.  by  a  thousand  sesterces,  Abl.  of 

Means). 


I40  SYNTAX. 


3.    Note  the  phrases  :  — 
VOti  damnatus,  voti  reus,  having  attained  ones  prayer  (lit.  condemned  on  the 

score  of  one's  vow)  ; 
de  vi,    {accused,  convicted,  etc.)  of  assault  ; 
inter  sicarios,  {accused,  convicted,  etc.)  of  murder. 

Genitive  -w^ith  Impersonal  Verbs. 

209.  I.  The  Impersonals  pudet,  paenitet,  miseret,  taedet, 
piget  take  the  Accusative  of  the  person  affected^  along  with 
the  Genitive  of  the  person  or  thing  toward  whom  the  feeling 
is  directed  ;  as, — 

pudet  me  tui,  /  am  ashamed  of  yoii  (Ht.  it  shames  m,e  of  you)  \ 
paenitet  me  hujus  facti,  I  repent  of  this  act ; 
eum  taedet  vitae,  he  is  weary  of  life; 
pauperum  te  miseret,  you  pity  the  poor. 

a.   Instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  thing  we  often  find  an  Infinitive  or  Neuter 
Pronoun  used  as  subject  of  the  verb.    Thus  :  — 
me  paenitet  hoc  fecisse,  /  repent  of  having  done  this  ; 
me  hoc  pudet,  /  am  ashamed  of  this. 

2.    Misereor   and   miseresco    also  govern    the   Genitive;    as, — 
miseremini  soci5rum,  pity  the  allies. 

Interest,  RSfert 

210.  With  interest,  it  concerns^  three  points  enter  into 
consideration ;  viz.  — 

a)  t)\Q person  concerned ; 

b)  the  thing  about  which  he  is  concerned ; 
^)  the  extent  of  his  concern. 

211.  I.  The  person  concerned  is  regularly  denoted  by 
the  Genitive;  as, — 

patris  interest,  it  concerns  the  father. 

a.   But  instead  of  the  Genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  mei, 
tui,   nostri,   vestri,   the   Latin  uses  the  Ablative  Singular 
Feminine  of  the  Possessive,  viz. :  mea,  tua,  etc. ;  as,  — 
mea  interest,  it  concerns  me. 


THE   GENITIVE.  I41 


2.  The  thing  about  which  a  person  is  concerned  is 
denoted  — 

a)    by  a  Neuter  Pronoun  as  subject ;  as,  — 

hoc  rei  publicae  interest,  this  concerns  the  state. 

F)    by  an  Infinitive  ;  as,  — 

omnium  interest  valere,  //  concerns  all  to  keep  well. 

c)    by  an  Indirect  Question ;  as,  — 

mea  interest  quando  venias,  /  a^n  concerned  as  to  when 
you  are  coming. 

3.  The  degree  of  concern  is  denoted  — 

a)  by  the  Genitive  (cf.  §  203,  3)  :  magni,  parvi,  etc. ;  as,  — 
mea  magni  interest,  it  concerns  me  greatly. 

b)  by  the  Adverbs,  magnopere,  magis,  maxime,  etc. ;  as,  — 
civium  minime  interest,  it  concerns  the  citizefis  very  little. 

c)  by  the  Neuters,  multum,  plus,  minus,  etc. ;  as,  — 
multum  vestra  interest,  //  concerns  you  much. 

4.  Refert  follows  interest  in  its  construction,  except  that  it  rarely 
takes  the  Genitive  of  the  person.     Thus  :  — 

mea  refert,  //  concerns  me ; 
but  rarely  illius  refert,  it  concerns  him. 

Genitive  -with  Other  Verbs. 

212.  I.  Verbs  of  Plenty  and  Want  sometimes  govern 
the  Genitive ;  as,  — 

pecuniae  indiges,  you  need  money. 

a.  These  verbs  more  commonly  take  the  Ablative  (§  214,  i)  ; 
indiged  is  the  only  verb  which  has  a  preference  for  the 
Genitive. 

2.  Potior,  though  usually  followed  by  the  Ablative,  sometimes  takes 
the  Genitive,  almost  always  so  in  Sallust ;  and  regularly  in  the  phrase : 
potiri  rerum,  to  get  control  of  affairs. 

3.  In  poetry  some  verbs  take  the  Genitive  in  imitation  of  the  Greek;  as,  — 

desine  querellarum,  cease  your  complaints  ; 
operum  ^o\xiX\,  freed  from  their  tasks. 


142  SYNTAX. 


THE   ABLATIVE. 

213.  The  Latin  Ablative  unites  in  itself  three  cases  which 
were  originally  distinct  both  in  form  and  in  meaning ;  viz.  — 

The  Ablative  or  from-case. 
The  Instrumental  or  with- case. 
The  Locative  or  where-case. 

The  uses  of  the  Latin  Ablative  accordingly  fall  into 
Genuine  Ablative  uses,  Instrumental  uses,  and  Locative 
uses.  < 

GENUINE   ABLATIVE   USES. 
Ablative  of  Separation. 

214.  The  Ablative  of  Separation  is  construed  sometimes 
with,  sometimes  without,  a  preposition. 

I.  The  following  words  regularly  take  the  Ablative  without  a 
preposition :  — 

a)  The  Verbs  oi freeing:  libero,  solvo,  levo  ; 

b)  The   Verbs    of  depriving:    privo,   spolio,    exuo,   fraudo, 
niido  ; 

c)  The  Verbs  oi  lacking:  egeo,  careo,  vaco  ; 

d^  The  corresponding  Adjectives,  liber,  inanis,  vacuus,  nudus, 
and  some  others  of  similar  meaning. 

Thus :  — 
curls  Vi}ciQX2it\x&^  freed  from  cares] 
Caesar  hostes  armis  exuit,  Caesar  stripped  the  enemy  of 

their  arms ; 
caret  sensu  communi,  he  lacks  common  sense', 
auxilio  eget,  he  needs  help ; 

bonorum  vita  vacua  est  metii,  the  life  of  the  good  is  free 
from  fear. 

Note  i. — Yet  Adjectives  and  libero  may  take  the  preposition  ab,  —  regu- 
larly so  with  the  Ablative  of  persons ;  as,  — 

urbem  a  tyranno  liber  arunt,  they  freed  the  city  from  ike  tyrant. 
Note  2.  —  Indigeo  usually  takes  the  Genitive.     See  §  212,  i,  a. 


THE  ABLATIVE.  I43 


2.  Of  Verbs  signifying  to  keep  from,  to  remove,  to  withdraw,  some 
take  the  preposition,  others  omit  it.  The  same  Verb  often  admits  both 
constructions.     Examples :' — 

abstinere  cibo,  to  abstain  from  food ; 

hostes  finibus  prohibuerunt,  they  kept  the  enemy  from  their  borders] 

praeddnes  ab  insula  prohibuit,  he  kept  the  pirates  from  the  island. 

3.  Other  Verbs  of  separation  usually  take  the  Ablative  with  a  Prep- 
osition, particularly  compounds  of  dis-  and  se- ;  as,  — 

dissentid  a  te,  /  dissent  from  you  ; 

secernantur  a  nobis,  let  them  be  separated  from  us. 

4.  The  Preposition  is  freely  omitted  in  poetry. 

Ablative  of  Source. 

215.  The  Ablative  of  Source  is  used  with  the  participles 
natus  and  ortus  (in  poetry  also  with  editus,  satus,  and  some 
others),  to  designate /^;r«/^^^  or  station  ;  as,  — 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter ; 

summo  loco  natus,  high-born  (lit.  born  from  a  very  high  place)  ; 

nobili  genere  ortus,  born  of  a  noble  family. 

1 .  Pronouns  regularly  (nouns  rarely)  take  ex ;  as, 

ex  me  natus,  sprung frojn  me* 

2.  To  denote  remoter  descent,  ortus  ab,  or  oriundus.  (with  or 
without  ab),  is  used  ;  as,  — 

ab  Ulixe  oriundus,  descended  from  Ulysses. 

Ablative  of  Agent. 

216.  The  Ablative  accompanied  by  a  (ab)  is  used  with 
passive  verbs  to  denote  the  personal  agent ;  as,  — 

a  Caesaire  accusatus  est,  he  was  arraigned  by  Caesar. 

1.  Collective  nouns  referring  to  persons,  and  abstract  nouns  when 
personified,  may  be  construed  as  the  personal  agent.     Thus  :  — 
hostes  a  fortuna  deserebantur,  the  enemy  were  deserted  by  Fortune ; 
a  multitudine  hostiuni  mdntes  tenebantur,  the  motmtains  were  held 

by  a  midtitude  of  the  enemy. 

2.  Names  of  animals  sometimes  admit  the  same  construction.     Thus :  — 

a  canibus  laniatus  est,  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  dogs. 


144  SYNTAX. 


Ablative  of  Comparison. 

217.  I.  The  Ablative  is  often  used  with  Comparatives 
in  the  sense  of  than  ;  as,  — 

melle  duloior,  sweeter  than  honey, 

patria  mihi  vita  carior  est,  my  country  is  dearer  to  fne  than  life. 

2.  This  construction,  as  a  rule,  occurs  only  as  a  substitute  for  quam 
(Jhan)  with  the  Nominative  or  Accusative.  In  other  cases  quam  must 
he  used  ;  as,  — 

tui  studiosior  sum  quam  illius,  I  am  fonder  of  you  than  of  him. 

Studiosior  illo  would  have  meant,  /  am  fonder  of  you  than  he  is. 

Plus,  minus,  amplius,  longius  are  often  employed  as  the  equiv- 
alents of  plus  quam,  minus  quam,  etc.     Thus  :  — 
amplius  viginti  urbes  inoenduntur,  tnore  than  twenty  cities  are 

fired] 
minus  quinque  milia  processit,  he  advanced  less  than  five  miles. 

3.  Note  the  use  of  opinione  with  Comparatives ;  as,  — 

opinione  celerius  venit,  he  comes  more  quickly  than  expected  (lit.  than  opinion) . 

INSTRUMENTAL   USES    OF   THE   ABLATIVE. 
Ablative  of  Means. 

218.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  means  or  instru- 
ment;  as, — 

Alexander  sagitta  vulneratus  est,  Alexander  was  wounded  by  an 

arrow. 
There  are  the  following  special  varieties  of  this  Ablative  :  — 
I.    Utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vesoor,  and  their  compounds  take 
the  Ablative  ;  as,  — 
divitiis   utitur,   he  uses  his  wealth   (lit.  he  benefits  hims^f  by  his 

wealth)  ; 
vita  fruitur,  he  enjoys  life  (lit.  he  enjoys  himself  by  life)  ; 
munere  fungor,  I  perform  my  duty  (lit.  I  busy  myself  with  duty)  ; 
carne  vesountur,  they  eat  flesh  (\ii.  feed  themselves  by  7neans  of)  ; 
castris  potitus  est,  he  got  possession  of  the  camp  (lit.  made  himself 

powerful  by  the  camp) . 

a.  Potior  sometimes  governs  the  Genitive.    See  §  212,  2. 


I 


THE  ABLATIVE.  I45 


2.  With  opus  est  (rarely  usus  est),  there  is  need;  as,  — 

duce  nobis  opus  est,  we  need  a  leader. 

a.  A  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjective  often  stands  as  subject  with 
opus  as  predicate.     Thus  :  — 

hoc  mihi  opus  est,  this  is  necessary  for  me. 

b.  An  ordinary  substantive  rarely  stands  as  subject.     Thus  dux 
n5bis  opus  est  is  a  rare  form  of  expression. 

c.  Note  the  occasional  use  of  a  perfect  passive  participle  with  opus  est ; 
as, — 

opus  est  properato,  there  is  need  of  haste. 

3.  With  nitor,  innixus,  and  fretus  ;  as, — 

nititur  hasta,  he  rests  on  a  spear  (lit.  supports  himself  by  a  spear)  ; 
fretus  virtute,  relying  on  virtice  (lit.  supported  by  virtue) . 

4.  With  contineri,  consistere,  constare,  consist  of ;  as, —      i 
nervis  et  ossibus  continentur,  they  consist  of  sinews  and  bones  (lit. 

they  are  held  together  by  sinews  and  bones)  ; 
mortal!  consistit  corpore  mundus,  the  world  consists  of  mortal  sub- 
stance (lit.  holds  together  by  means  of  etc.). 

6.  In  expressions  of  the  following  type  :  — 

quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  ca7i  you  do  with  this  man  f 
quid  mea  Tulliola  fiet,  what  will  become  of  my  dear  Tullia  f  (lit.  what 
will  be  done  with  my  dear  Tullia  f) 

7.  In  the  following  special  phrases  at  variance  with  the  ordinary 
English  idiom :  — 

proelio  contendere,  vincere,  to  contend,  conquer  in  battle ; 
proelio  lacessere,  to  provoke  to  battle ; 
curru  vehl,  to  ride  in  a  chariot ; 
pedibus  Ire,  to  go  on  foot ; 
castris  se  tengre,  to  keep  in  camp. 

8.  With  Verbs  oi filling  and  Adjectives  oi plenty ;  as,  — 
fossas  virgultis  complerunt,  they  filled  the  trenches  with  brush. 

a.  But  plenus  more  commonly  takes  the  Genitive.     See  ^  204,  i. 

9.  Under    'Means'    belongs    also    the    Ablative    of  the    Way   by 
Which ;  as,  — 

vinum  Tiber!  devectum,  wine  brought  down  {by)  the  Tiber. 


146  SYNTAX. 


10.    The  means  may  be  a  person  as  well  as  a  thing.     Thus  :  — 
militibus  a  lacu  Lenianno  ad  montein  Juram  murum  perdticit,  with 
(i.e.  by  means  of)  Ms  troops  he  runs  a  wall  from  Lake  Geneva  to  Mt.  Jura. 

Ablative  of  Cause. 

219.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  cause  ;  as,  — 
miilta  gloriae  cupiditate  fecit,  he  did  many  things  on  account  of  his 

love  of  glory. 

1 .  So  especially  witb  verbs  denoting  mental  states ;  as,  delector, 
gaudeo,  laetor,  glorior,  fido,  confido.  Also  with  contentus; 
as, — 

f ortuna  amici  gaudeo,  /  rejoice  at  the  fortune  of  my  friettd  {i.e.  on 

account  of  it)  ; 
victoria  sua  gloriantur,  they  exult  over  their  victory ; 
natura  loci  confidebant,  they  trusted  in  the  character  of  their  cotmtry 

(lit.  were  confdent  on  accomit  of  the  character). 

a.   fido  and  confido  always  take  the  Dative  of  the  person  (§  187.  II.  a) ; 
sometimes  the  Dative  of  the  thing. 

2.  As  Ablatives  of  Cause  are  to  be  reckoned  also  such  Ablatives  as 
jussu,  by  order  of  injussu,  without  the  order,  rogatu,  etc. 

Ablative  of  Manner. 

220.  The  Ablative  with  cum  is  used  to  denote  manner ; 

as, — 

cum  gravitate  loquitur,  he  speaks  with  dignity. 

1.  The  preposition  may  be  absent  when  the  Ablative  is  modified 
by  an  adjective ;  as,  — 

magna  gravitate  loquitur,  he  speaks  with  great  dignity. 

2.  The  preposition  is  regularly  absent  in  the  expressions  jure, 
injuria,  joco,  vi,  fraude,  voluntate,  furto,  silentio. 

3.  A  special  variety  of  the  Ablative  of  Manner  denotes  that  in  ac- 
cordance with  which  or  in  pursuance  of  which  anything  is  or  is  done. 
It  is  generally  used  without  a  preposition.     Thus  :  — 

mea  sententia,  according  to  my  opinion  ; 
suis  moribus,  in  accordance  with  their  custom ; 
sua  sponte,  voluntarily,  of  his  (their)  own  accord; 
ea  condicione,  on  these  terjns. 


THE  ABLATIVE.  1 47 


Ablative   of  Attendant   Circumstance. 

221.  The  Ablative  is  often  used  to  denote  an  attendant 
circumstance  of  an  action  or  an  event ;  as,  — 

bonis  auspiciis,  under  good  auspices ; 

nulla  est  altercatid  clamoribus  umquam.  habita  majoribus^  na 

debate  was  ever  held  binder  circumstances  of  greater  applause ; 
exstinguitur  ingenti  luctu  provinciae,  he  dies  under  circumstances 

of  great  grief  on  the  part  of  the  province ; 
longo  intervallo  sequitur,  he  follows  at  a  great  distance. 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment. 

222.  The  Ablative  with  cum  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion 
to  denote  accompaniment ;  as,  — 

cum  comitibus  profectus  est,  he  set  out  with  his  attendants  ', 
Cum  febri  domum  rediit,  he  returned  home  with  a  fever. 
I.    In  military  expressions  the   Ablative  may  stand  without   cum 
when  modified  by  any  adjective  except  a  numeral ;  as,  — 
omnibus  copiis,  ingenti  exercitu,  magna  manu ;  but  usually  cum 
exercitu,  cum  duabus  legionibus. 

Ablative  of  Association. 
222  A.    The  Ablative  is  often  used  with  verbs  oi  joinings 
mixings  clinging^  exchanging ;  also  with  assuesco,  consuesco, 
assuefacio,  and  some  others  to  denote  association  ;  as,  — 
improbitas  scelere  juncta,  badness  joined  with  criitte ; 
aer  calore  admixtus,  air  mixed  with  heat ; 
assuetus  labore,  accustomed  to  (lit.  familiari:sed  with)  toil; 
pacem  bello  permutant,  they  change  peace  for  (lit.  with)  war. 

Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference. 

223.  The  Ablative  is  used  with  comparatives  and  words 
involving  comparison  (as  post,  ante.  Infra,  supra)  to  denote 

the  degree  of  difference  ;  as,  — 

dimidid  minor,  sjnaller  by  a  half; 
tribus  pedibus  altior,  three  feet  higher ; 
pau^o  post,  a  little  afterwards ; 

quo  plura  habemus,  eo  cupimus  ampliora,  the  more  we  have,  the 
more  we  want. 


148  SYNTAX. 


Ablative  of  Quality. 

224.  The  Ablative,  modified  by  an  adjective,  is  used  to 
denote  quality;  as,  —  ^ 

puella  eximia  forma,  a  girl  of  exceptional  beauty  ; 
vir  singular!  industria,  a  man  of  singular  industry. 

1 .  The  Ablative  of  Quality  may  also  be  used  predicatively ;  as,  — 
est  magncL  prudentia,  he  is  (a  man^  of  great  wisdom  ; 
bono  animo  sunt,  I  hey  are  of  good  courage. 

2.  In  place  of  the  Adjective  we  sometimes  find  a  limiting  Genitive  ;  as, — 
sunt  specie  et  colore  taun,  they  are  of  the  appearance  and  color  of  a  bull, 

3.  In  poetry  the  Ablative  of  Quality  sometimes  denotes  material ;  as, — 

scopulis  pendentibus  antrum,  a  cave  of  arching  rocks. 

Ablative  of  Price. 

225.  With  verbs  of   buying  and  sellings  price  is  desig- 
nated by  the  Ablative  ;  as  — 

servum  quinque  minis  emit,  he  bought  the  slave  for  five  minae. 

1.  The  Ablatives  magno,  plurimo,  parvo,  minimo   (by  omission 
of  pretio)  are  used  to  denote  indefinite  price  ',  as, — 

aedes  magno  vendidit,  he  sold  the  house  for  a  high  price. 

2.  For  the  Genitive  of  Indefinite  Price,  see  §  203.  4. 

Ablative  of  Specification. 

226.  The  Ablative  of  Specification  is  used  to  denote 
that  in  respect  to  which  something  is  or  is  done ;  as,  — 
Helvetii  omnibus  Gallis  virtiite  praestabant,  the  Helvetians  sur* 

passed  all  the  Gaids  in  valor ; 
pede  claudus,  lame  in  his  foot.  *, 

1 .  Note  the  phrases  :  — 

major  natu,  older  (lit.  greater  as  to  age)  ; 
minor  natu,  younger. 

2.  Here  belongs   the   use   of  the   Ablative   with    dignus,  worthy^ 
indignus,  unworthy,  and  dignor,  deem  worthy  of;  as,  — 

digni  honore,  worthy  of  honor  {i.e.  in  point  of  honc')  ; 

fide  indigni,  unworthy  of  confidence ; 

me  dignor  honore,  I  deem  myself  worthy  of  honor. 


THE  ABLATIVE.  1 49 


Ablative  Absolute. 
227.    The    Ablative    Absolute    is    grammatically    inde- 
pendent of  the  rest  of  the  sentence.      In  its  commonest 
form    it   consists   of    a    noun    or    pronoun    limited    by  a 
participle ;  as,  — 

urbe  capta,  Aeneas  fugit,  when  the  city  had  been  captured^  Aeneas 
fled  (lit.  the  city  having  been  captured^. 

1.  Instead  of  a  participle  we  often  find  an  adjective  or  noun  ;  as,  — 
vivo  Caesare  res  publioa  salva  erat,  while  Caesar  was  alive  the 

state  was  safe  (lit.  Caesa?'  being  alii'e)  ; 
Tarquinio  rege,  Pythagoras  in  Italiam  venit,  in  the  reign  of  Tar- 

quin  Pythagoras  cajne  into  Italy  (lit.  Tarquin  being  king)  ; 
Cn.  Pompejo,  M.  CrassS  consulibus,  in  the  consulship  of  Gnaeus 

Pompey  and  Marcus  Crassus  (lit.  P.  and  C.  being  consuls') . 

2.  The  Ablative  Absolute  is  generally  used  in  Latin  where  in 
English  we  employ  subordinate  clauses.  Thus  the  Ablative  Absolute 
may  correspond  to  a  clause  denoting  — 

a)  Time,  as  in  the  foregoing  examples. 

b)  Condition  ;  as,  — 

omnes  virtutes  jacent,  voluptate  dominante,  all  virtues 
lie  prostrate,  if  pleasure  is  master, 

c)  Opposition;  as, — 

perditis  omnibus  rebus,  virtus  se  sustentare  potest, 
though  everything  else  is  lost,  yet  Virtue  can  maintain 
herself. 

d)  Cause;  as, — 

null5  adversante  regnum  obtinuit,  since  no  one  opposed 
him,  he  secured  the  throne. 

e)  Attendant  circumstance  ;  as,  — 

passis  palmis  paoem  petiverunt,  with  hands  outstretched, 

they  sued  for  peace. 

3.  An  Infinitive  or  clause  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Ablative  Absolute 
construction,  especially  in  Livy  and  later  writers  ;  as, — 

auditd  eum  fugisse,  when  it  was  heard  that  he  had  fled. 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun  stands  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  construction 
only  when  it  denotes  a  different  person  or  thing  from  any  in  the  clause 
in  which  it  stands.     Exceptions  to  this  principle  are  extremely  rare. 


ISO  SYNTAX. 


LOCATIVE   USES   OF   THE   ABLATIVE. 
Ablative  of  Place. 

A.   Place  where. 

228.  -The  place  where  is  regularly  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative with  a  preposition  /,  as,  — 

in  urbe  habitat,  he  dwells  in  the  city. 

I.    But  certain  words    stand    in    the   Ablative   without    a    prepo- 
sition; viz. — ■ 

a)  Names    of   towns,  —  except    Singulars    of   the    First    and 
Second  Declensions  (see  §  232.  i)  ;  as, — 

Carthagini,  at  Carthage ; 
Athenis,  at  Athens  ; 
Vejis,  at  Veil. 

b)  The   general  words  loco,  locis,  parte;    also  many  words 
modified  by  totus  or  even  by  other  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

hoc  loco,  at  this  place ; 

totis  castris,  in  the  whole  camp. 

c)  The  special  words  :  foris,  out  of  doors  ',  ruri,  iii  the  country] 
terra  marique,  on  land  and  sea. 

//)    The  poets  freely  omit  the  preposition  with  any  word  denot- 
ing place  ;  as,  — 
stant  litore  puppes,  the  sterns  rest  on  the  beach. 

B.   Place  from  which. '^ 

229.  Place   from    which    is    regularly    denoted   by   the 
Ablative  with  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

ab  Italia  profectus  est,  he  set  out  fro?n  Italy  ; 
ex  urbe  rediit,  he  returned  from  the  city. 

I.    But   certain    words    stand    in   the   Ablative   without    a   prepo- 
sition ;  viz.  — 

«)    Names  of  towns  and  small  islands  ;  as, — 
Roma  profectus  est,  he  set  out  from  Rome ; 
Rhodo  revertit,  he  retu7'ned  from  Rhodes. 

1  Place  from  which,  though  strictly  a  Genuine  Ablative  use,  is  treated  here  foi 
sake  of  convenience. 


THE  ABLATIVE.  I?! 


b)  domo,  from  ho jne ;  ixLxe,fro?n  the  country. 

c)  Freely  in  poetry ;  as,  — 

Italia  decessit,  he  withdrew  from  Italy. 

2.  With  names  of  towns,  ab  is  used  to  mean  from  the  vicinity  of. 
or  to  denote  the  point  whence  distance  is  measured;  as, — 

a  Gergovia  discessit,  he  withdrew  from  the  vicinity  of  Gergovia ; 

a  Roma  X  milia  aberat,  he  was  ten  miles  distant  from  Rotne. 

Urbe  and  oppido,  when  standing  in  apposition  with  a  town  name,, 
are  accompanied  by  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

Curibus  ex  oppido  Sabinorunij/r^/^z  Cures.,  a  town  of  the  Sabines.. 

Ablative  of  Time. 

A.    Time  at  which. 

230.  The  Ablative  is  used  to  denote  the  time  at 
which  ;  as,  — 

quarta  hora  mortuus  est,  he  died  at  the  fotirth  hour ; 
anno  septuagesimo  consul  creatus,  elected  consul  in  his  seventieth 
year. 

1 .  Any  word  denoting  a  period  of  time  may  stand  in  this  con- 
struction, particularly  annus,  ver,  aestas,  hiems,  dies,  nox,  hora, 
comitia  {Election  Day),  ludi  {the  Gaines),  etc. 

2.  Words  not  denoting  time  require  the  preposition  in,  unless 
accompanied  by  a  modifier.     Thus  :  — 

in  pace,  in  peace ;  in  bello,  in  war ; 

but  secundo  bello  Punico,  in  the  second  Punic  War. 

3.  Expressions  like  in  eo  tempore,  in  summa  senectute,  take  the 
preposition  because  they  denote  situation  rather  than  tirne. 

B.    Time  within  which. 

231.  Time  within  which  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative 
either  with  or  without  a  preposition  ;  as,  — 

Stella  Saturn!  triginta  annis  cursum  conficit,  the  planet  Saturn 

completes  its  orbit  within  thirty  years ; 
ter  in  anno,  thrice  in  the  course  of  the  year. 

I.   Occasionally  the  Ablative  denotes  duration  of  time  ;  as,  — 
biennio  prosperas  res  habuit ,  /i?r  two  years  he  had  a  prosperous  administration. 


1 52  SYNTAX. 


THE   LOCATIVE. 

232.    The  Locative  case  occurs  chiefly  in  the  following 
words :  — 

1.  Regularly  in  the  Singular  of  names  of  towns  and  small  islands 
of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  to  denote  the  place  in  which ;  as,  — 

Romae,  a^  Rome ;  Corinthi,  al  Corinth ; 

Rhodi,  at  Rhodes. 

2.  In  the  following  special  forms  :  — 

domi,  at  home]  humi,  on  the  ground ', 

belli,  in  war  ,*  militiae,  in  war ; 

vesperi,  at  evening;  heri, yesterday. 

3.  Note  the  phrase  pendere  animi,  lit.  to  be  in  suspense  in  one'^s 
mind. 

4.  For  urbs  and  oppidum  in  apposition  with  a  Locative,  see  §  169.  4. 


Chapter  III.  —  Syntax  of  Adjectives, 

233.    I.   The  word  with  which  an  Adjective  agrees  is 
called  its  Subject. 

2.  Attributive  and  Predicate  Adjectives.     An  Attributive 
Adjective  is  one  that  limits  its  subject  directly ;  as,  — 

vir  sapiens,  a  wise  7nan. 

A  Predicate  Adjective  is  one  that  limits  its  subject  through 
the  medium  of  a  verb  (usually  esse) ;  as,  — 

vir  est  sapiens,  the  man  is  wise ; 

vir  videbatur  sapiens,  the  man  seemed  wise ; 

vir  judicatus  est  sapiens,  the  man  was  judged  wise; 

hunc  virum  sapientem  judicavimus,  we  adjudged  this  man  wise. 

3.  Participles   and    Adjective   Pronouns   have   the  construction   of 
Adjectives. 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES.  153 

AGREEMENT   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

234.  Agreement  with  One  Noun.  When  an  Adjective 
limits  one  noun  it  agrees  with  it  in  Gender,  Number,  and 
Case. 

1.  Two  Adjectives  in  the  Singular  may  limit  a  noun  in  the  Plural; 
as,  prima  et  vicesima  legiones,  the  first  and  twentieth  legions. 

2.  A  Predicate  Adjective  may  stand  in  the  Neuter  vi^hen  its  Subject 
is  MascuHne  or  Feminine  and  denotes  a  thing ;  as,  — 

omnium  rerum  mors  est  extremum,  death  is  the  end  of  all  things. 

235.  Agreement  with  Two  or  More  Nouns. 

A.  AGREEMENT   AS   TO   NUMBER. 

1.  When  the  Adjective  is  Attributive,  it  regularly  agrees 
in  number  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 

pater  tuus  et  mater,  your  father  and  mother ; 

eademi  alacritas  et  studium,  the  same  eagerness  and  zeal. 

2.  When  the  Adjective  is  Predicative,  it  is  regularly 
Plural ;  as,  — 

pax  et  Concordia  svLut  ^nlchxdLe,  peace  and  concord  are  glorious . 

•      B.   AGREEMENT   AS   TO   GENDER. 

1.  When  the  Adjective  is  Attributive,  it  regularly  agrees 
in  gender  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 

res  operae  multae  ac  laboris,  a  matter  of  fnuch  effort  and  labor. 

2.  When  the  Adjective  is  Predicative  — 

<z)  If  the  nouns  are  of  the  same  gender,  the  Adjective  agrees 
with  them  in  gender ;  as,  — 
pater  et  filius  capti  sunt,  father  and  son  were  captured. 

Yet  with  feminine  abstract  nouns,  the  Adjective  is  more  fre- 
quently Neuter ;  as,  — 

stultitia  et  timiditas  f  ugienda  sunt,  folly  and  cowardice 
must  be  shunned. 


154  SYNTAX. 


b)  If  the  nouns  are  of  different  gender ;  then,  — 

a)  In  case  they  denote  persons,  the  Adjective  is  Mascu- 
line ;  as,  — 

pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  the  father  and  jnother  have 
died. 

P)  In   case  they   denote    things,   the  Adjective   is   Neu- 
ter; as, — 

honores  et  victoriae  fortuita  sunt,  honors  and  victories 
are  accidental. 

y)  In    case   they   include  both   persons   and   things,   the 
Adjective  is, — 

aa)  Sometimes  Masculine  ;  as,  — 
domus,  uxor,  liberi  invent!  sunt,  home,  wife,  and  children 
are  secured. 

PP)  Sometimes  Neuter ;  as,  — 
parentes,  liberos,  domos  vilia   habere,  to  hold  parents, 
children,  houses  cheap. 

yy)  Sometimes  it  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun  ;  as,  — 
populi  provinoiaeque  liberatae  sunt,  nations  and  prov- 
inces were  liberated. 

c)  Construction  according  to  Sense.  Sometimes  an  Ad- 
jective does  not  agree  with  a  noun  according  to  strict  gram- 
matical form,  but  according  to  sense ;  as,  — 

pars  bestiis  object!  sunt,  part  (of  the  men)  were  thrown 
to  beasts. 

ADJECTIVES   USED   SUBSTANTIVELY. 

236.  I.  Plural  Adjectives  used  Substantively. 
Adjectives  are  quite  freely  used  as  Substantives  in  the 
Plural.  The  Masculine  denotes  persons ;  the  Neuter 
denotes  things ;  as,  — 

docti,  scholars ;  parva,  small  things ; 

mall,  the  wicked;  magna,  great  things ; 

Graeci,  the  Greeks ;  utilia,  useful  things ; 

nostri,  our  men. 


ADJECTIVES   USED   SUBSTANTIVELY.  155 

2.  Neuter  Plural  Adjectives  thus  used  are  confined  mainly  to  the 
Nominative  and  Accusative  cases.  Such  forms  as  magnorum,  om- 
nium; magnis,  omnibus,  would  ordinarily  lead  to  ambiguity;  yet 
where  there  is  no  ambiguity,  they  sometimes  occur ;  as,  — 

parvis  comiponere  magna,  to  compare  great  tkmgs  with  small. 
Otherwise  the  Latin  says :  magnarum  rerum,  magnis  rebus,  etc. 

237.  Singular  Adjectives  used  Substantively.  Ad- 
jectives are  less  freely  used  as  Substantives  in  the  Sin- 
gular than  in  the  Plural. 

1.  Masculine  Adjectives  occur  only  occasionally  in   this  use;  as, — 
probus  invidet  nem.ini,  the  honest  man  envies  nobody. 

a.  Usually  vir,  homo,  or  some  similar  word  is  employed  ;  as,  — 

homo  doctus,  a  scholar ; 
vir  Romanus,  a  Roman. 

b.  But  when   limited   by   a  pronoun   any  adjective  may  be  so 
used ;  as,  — 

hic  doctus,  this  scholar ; 
doctus  quidam,  a  certain  scholar. 

2.  Neuters  are  likewise  infrequent ;  as,  —    , 

verum,  truth ; 
jtistum,  justice; 
honestum,  virtue. 

a.    This  substantive  use  of  Neuter  Singulars  is  commonest  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Genitive  of  the  Whole,  and  after  Prepositions;  as, — 
aliquid  veri,  something  true  ; 
nihil  novi,  nothing  new; 
in  medio,  in  the  midst. 

238.  From  Adjectives  which,  like  the  above,  occasionally  admit  the 
substantive  use,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  certain  others  which 
have  become  nouns  ;  as,  — 

adyersarius,  opponent ;  hiberna,  winter  quarters ; 

aequalis,  contemporary ;  propinquus,  relative ; 

amicus,  friend ;  socius,  partner  ; 

cognatus,  kinsman ;  sodalis,  comrade ; 

vicinus,  neighbor ;  etc. 


156  SYNTAX. 


ADJECTIVES   WITH   THE  FORCE   OP   ADVERBS. 

239.  The  Latin  often  uses  an  Adjective  where  the  Eng- 
lish idiom  employs  an  Adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase  ;  as,  — 

senatus  frequens  convenit,  the  senate  assembled  in  great  numbers ; 
fuit  assiduus  mecum,  /le  was  constantly  with  me. 

COMPARATIVES   AND    SUPERLATIVES. 

240.  I  •  The  Comparative  often  corresponds  to  the  English  Positive 
with  '  rather^  '  somewhat,''  '-  too ' ;  as,  — 

senectus  est  loquacior,  old  age  is  rather  talkative. 

2.  So  the  Superlative  often  corresponds  to  the  Positive  with 
*  very ' ;  as,  — 

vir  fortissimus,  a  very  brave  man. 

3.  Strengthening  Words.  Vel  and  quam  are  often  used  with 
the  Superlative  as  strengthening  particles,  vel  with  the  force  of  *  very,^ 
and  quam  with  the  force  of  '  as  possible  ' ;  as,  — 

vel  maximus,  the  very  greatest ; 

quam  maximae  copiae,  as  great  forces  as  possible. 

4.  Phrases  of  the  type  '  more  rich  than  brave '  regularly  take  the  Comparative 
in  both  members ;  as,  — 

exercitus  erat  ditior  quam  f ortlor,  fhe  army  was  more  rich  than  brave. 

OTHER  PECULIARITIES. 

241.  I .  Certain  Adjectives  may  be  used  to  denote  apart  of  an  object , 
chiefly  primus,  extremus,  summus,  medius,  infilmus,  imus ;  as,  — 

,  summus  m5ns,  the  top  of  the  mountain ; 

extrema  hieme,  in  the  last  part  of  the  winter. 

2.  Prior,  primus,  ultimus,  and  postremus  are  frequently  equiva- 
lent to  a  relative  clause  ;  as,  — 

primus  eam  vidi,  /  was  the  first  who  saw  her  ; 
ultimus  decessit,  he  was  the  last  who  withdrew.  • 

3.  When  multus  and  another  adjective  both  limit  the  same  noun, 
et  is  generally  used ;  as,  — 

multae  et  magnae  cogitationes,  many  (and)  great  thoughts. 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  —  POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS.     1 57 
Chapter  IV.  —  Syntax  of  Pronouns. 

PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

242.  I.  The  Personal  Pronouns  as  subjects  of  verbs 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  expressed  except  for  the  purpose  of 
emphasis^  contrast^  or  clearness.     Thus  ordinarily  :  — 

video,  /  see ;  amat,  /le  loves. 

But  ego  te  video,  et  tu  me  vides,  I  see  you,  and  you  see  me. 

2.  The  Genitives  mei,  tui,  nostri,  vestri  are  used  only  as  Objective 
Genitives  ;  nostrum  and  vestrum  as  Genitives  of  the  Whole.     Thus :  — 

memor  tui,  mindful  of  you ; 
desiderium  vestri,  longing  for  you ; 
nem5  vestrum,  no  one  of  you. 

a.  But  nostrum  and  vestrum  are  regularly  used  in  the  place  of  the  Pos- 
sessive in  the  phrases  omnium  nostrum,  omnium  vestrum. 

3.  The  First  Plural  is  often  used  for  the  First  Singular  of  Pronouns 
and  Verbs.     Compare  the  Eng.  editorial  *we.' 

4.  When  two  Verbs  govern  the  same  object,  the  Latin  does  not 
use  a  pronoun  with  the  second,  as  is  the  rule  in  English.     Thus  :  — 
virtus  amicitias  conciliat  et  conservat,  virtue  establishes  friend- 
ships and  maintains  the7n  (not  eas  conservat) . 

POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS. 

243.  I.  The  Possessive  Pronouns,  as  a  rule,  are  not 
employed  except  for  the  purpose  of  clearness.     Thus  : — 

patrem  amo,  I  love  my  father  j 

de  fnil  morte  flebas,  you  wept  for  the  death  of  your  son. 

But  — 

de  morte  filii  mei  flebas,  you  wept  for  the  death  of  my  son. 

a.  When  expressed  merely  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  pos- 
sessive usually  stands  after  its  noun ;  but  in  order  to  indi- 
cate emphasis  or  contrast,  it  precedes  ;  as,  — 

sua  manu  liberos  occidit,  with  his  own  hand  he  slew  his 

children ; 
mea  quidem  sententia,  in  my  opinion  at  least. 


158  SYNTAX. 


2.  Sometimes  the  Possessive  Pronouns  are  used  with  the  force  of 
au  Objective  Genitive ;  as,  — 

metus  vester,/^^r  of  you ; 
desiderium  tuum,  longing  for  you. 

3.  For  special  emphasis,  the  Latin  employs  ipsius  or  ipsorum,  in 
apposition  with  the  Genitive  idea  implied  in  the  Possessive ;  as,  — 

mea  ipsius  opera,  by  my  own  help ; 
nostra  ipsorum  opera,  by  our  own  help  ; 

a.  So  sometimes  other  Genitives ;  as,  — 

mea  unius  opera,  by  the  assistance  of  me  alone. 

REFLEXIVE  PRONOUNS. 

244.  I.  The  Reflexive  Pronoun  se  and  the  Possessive 
Reflexive  suus  have  a  double  use  :  — 

.  I.   They  may  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  clause  (either  principal  or 
subordinate)  in  which  they  stand,  —  ^  Direct  Reflexives  ^ ;  as,  — 
se  amant,  they  love  themselves ; 
suos  amicos  adjuvat,  he  helps  his  own  friends ; 
eum  oravi,  ut  se  servaret,  /  besought  him  to  save  himself. 

II.    They  may  stand  in  a  subordinate  clause  and  refer  to  the  subject 
of  the  principal  clause,  — '  Indirect  Reflexives  ' ;  as,  — 
me  oravit  ut  se  dSfenderem,  he  besought  me  to  defend  hitn  (lit.  that 

I  defe7id  hi7nself)  ; 
me  oraverunt,  ut  fortunarum  suarum  defensionem  susciperem, 

they  besought  me  to  undertake  the  defmse  of  their  fortunes. 

a.  The  Indirect  Reflexive  is  mainly  restricted  to  those  clauses 
which  express  the  thought,  not  of  the  author,  but  of  the  sub- 
ject of  the  principal  clause. 

2.  '1  he  Genitive  sui  is  regularly  employed,  like  mei  and  tui,  as  an 
Objective  Genitive,  e.g.  oblitus  sui,  forgetful  of  himself]  but  it  occa- 
sionally occurs  —  particularly  in  post-Augustan  writers  —  in  place  of  the 
Possessive  suus  ;  as,  f  ruitur  f  ama  sui,  he  enjoys  his  own  fa7fie. 

3.  Se  and  suus  are  sometimes  used  in  the  sense,  one''s  self  one's 
awn,  where  the  reference  is  not  to  any  particular  person ;  as,  — 

se  amare,  to  love  one's  self', 

suum  genium  propitiSxe,  to  propitiate  one''s  own  genius. 


RECIPROCAL   AND    DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS.     1 59 

4.  Suus  sometimes  occurs  in  the  meaning  his  owjt,  their  own,  etc.y 
referring  not  to  the  subject  but  to  an  oblique  case ;  as,  — 
Hannibalem  sui  elves  e  civitate  ejecerunt,  his  own  fellow-citizens 

drove  out  Hannibal. 

a.   This    usage    is    particularly   frequent    in    combination  with 

quisque ;  as,  — 

suus  quemque  error  vexat,  his  own  error  troubles  each. 

5.  The  Reflexives  for  the  first  and  second  persons  are  supplied  by 
the  oblique  cases  of  ego  and  tu  (§  85)  ;  as, — 

vos  def  enditis,  you  defend  yourselves. 

RECIPROCAL  PRONOUNS. 

245.  I .  The  Latin  has  no  special  reciprocal  pronoun  ('  each  other '), 
but  expresses  the  reciprocal  notion  by  the  phrases :  inter  nos,  inter 
vos,  inter  se  ;  as,  — 

Belgae  obsides  inter  se  dederunt,  the  Belgae  gave  each  other  hos- 
tages (lit.  among  themselves); 
amamus  inter  nos,  we  love  each  other ; 
Galli  inter  se  cohortati  sunt,  the  Gauls  exhorted  each  other. 

a.   Note  that  the  Object  is  not  expressed  in  sentences  of  this  type. 

DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 
Hie,  Ille,  Iste. 

246.  I.  Where  hic  and  ille  are  used  in  contrast,  hic  usually  refers 
to  the  latter  of  two  objects,  and  ille  to  the  former. 

2.  Hio  and  ille  are  often  used  in  the  sense  oi  ^  the  following'' ;  as,  — 
Themistocles  his  verbis  epistulam  misit,  Themistocles  sent  a  letter 

{couched)  in  the  following  words ; 
illud  intellego,  omnium  ora  in  me  conversa  esse,  /  understand 
this.,  that  the  faces  of  all  are  turned  toward  7ne. 

3.  Ille  often  means  the  fa7nous ;  as,  Solon  ille,  the  famous  Solon. 

4.  Iste  frequently  involves  contempt ;  as,  iste  homo,  that  fellow  I 

5.  The  above  pronouns,  along  with  is,  are  usually  attracted  to  the 
gender  of  a  predicate  noun ;  as,  hic  est  honor,  meminisse  oificium 
suum,  this  is  an  honor.,  to  be  mindful  of  one'' s  duty. 


l6o  SYNTAX. 


Is. 

247.  I.    Is   often   serves   as   the   antecedent   of  the  relative  qui. 
Thus:  — 

Maximum,  eum  qui  Tarentum  recepit,  dilexi,  I  loved  Maxtmus,  the 
man  who  retook  Tarentum. 

a.  Closely  akin  to  this  usage  is  is  in  the  sense  oi  such  (=  talis)  ; 
as, — 

non  sum.  is  qui  terrear,  /  am  not  such  a  perso7i  as  to  be 
frightened. 

b.  Note  the  phrase  id  quod,  where  id  stands  in  apposition  with 
an  entire  clause  ;  as,  — 

non  suspicabatur  (id  quod  nunc  sentiet)  satis  multos 
testes  n5bis  reliquos  esse,  he  did  not  suspect  (a 
thing  which  he  will  now  perceive)  that  we  had  wit- 
nesses enough  left. 

Yet  quod  alone,  without  preceding  id,  sometimes  occurs  in 

this  use. 

2.  Is  also  in  all  cases  serves  as  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  third 
person,  '-he^  ^ she,''  '//,'  ^they,''  'them.'' 

3.  When  the  English  uses  'that  of  ^ those  of  to  avoid  repetition  of 
the  noun,  the  Latin  omits  the  pronoun ;  as,  — 

in  exercitu  Sullae  et  postea  in  Crassi  fuerat,  he  had  been  in  the 
arjny  of  Sulla  and  afterward  in  that  of  Crassus ; 

nullae  me  fabulae  delect  ant  nisi  Plauti,  no  plays  delight  me  except 
those  of  Plautus. 

4.  Note  the  phrases  et  is,  et  ea,  etc.,  in  the  sense :  and  that  too  ;  as, — 
vincula,  et  ea  sempiterna,  imprisonment,  and  that  too  permanently. 

Idem. 

248.  I.    idem  in  apposition  with  the  subject  or  object  often  has  the 
force  of  also,  likewise ;  as,  — 

quod  idem  mihi  contigit,  which  likewise  happened  to  me  (lit.  which, 

the  same  thing)  ; 
bonus  vir,   quem  eundem   sapientem  appellamus,   a  good  man, 

whom  we  call  also  wise. 
For  idem  atque  (ac),  the  same  as,  see  §  341.  i.  ^. 


DEMONSTRATIVE  AND   RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.     l6l 

Ipse. 

249.  I.  Ipse,  literally  self,  acquires  its  special  force  from  the  con- 
text ;  as,  — 

eo  ipso  die,  on  that  very  day ; 

ad  ipsam  ripam,  close  to  the  bank  ; 

ipso  terrore,  dy  mere  fright ; 

valvae  se  ipsae  aperuerunt,  the  doors  opened  of  their  own  accord; 

ipse  aderat,  he  was  present  in  person. 

2.  The  reflexive  pronouns  are  often  emphasized  by  the  addition  of 
ipse,  but  ipse  in  such  cases,  instead  of  standing  in  apposition  with  the 
reflexive,  more  commonly  agrees  with  the  subject ;  as,  — 

secum  ipsi  loquuntur,  they  talk  with  thejnselves  ; 

se  ipse  continere  non  potest,  he  cannot  contaijt  himself 

3.  Ipse  is  also  used  as  an  Indirect  Reflexive  for  the  purpose  of 
marking  a  contrast  or  avoiding  an  ambiguity ;  as,  — 

Persae  pertimuerunt  ne  Alcibiades  ab  ipsis  descisceret  ^t  cum 
suis  in  gratiam  rediret,  the  Persians  feared  that  Alcibiades 
woidd  break  with  them  and  become  reconciled  with  his  coimtryynen. 

ea  molestissime  f erre  debent  homines  quae  ipsorum  culpa  con- 
tracta  sunt,  ?fien  ought  to  chafe  tnost  over  those  things  which  have 
been  brought  about  by  their  own  fault  (as  opposed  to  the  fault  of 
others). 

RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

250.  Agreement.  I.  The  Relative  Pronoun  agrees  with 
its  antecedent  in  Gender,  Number,  and  Person,  but  its  case 
is  determined  by  its  construction  in  the  clause  in  which  it 
stands ;  as,  —  .     ' 

mulier  quam  videbamus,  the  woman  whom  we  saw ;, 
bona  quibus  fruimur,  the  blessings  which  we  enjoy. 

2.  Where  the  antecedent  is  compound,  the  same  principles  for 
number  and  gender  prevail  as  in  case  of  predicate  adjectives  under 
similar  conditions  (see  §  235.  B.  2).     Thus  :  — 

pater  et  filius,  qui  capti  sunt,  the  father  aftd  son  who  were  captured  \ 
stultitia  et  timiditas  quae  fugienda  snut,  folly  and  cowardice  which 

77iust  be  shunned; 
honores  et  victoriae  quae  sunt  fortuita,  honors  and  victor ies,  which 
are  accidental. 


1 62  SYNTAX. 


3.  The  Relative   regularly  agrees   with   a   predicate   noun    (either 
Nominative  or  Accusative)  instead  of  its  antecedent  ;  as,  — 

career,  quae  lautumiae  vocantur,  the  prison,  which  is  called  Lau- 

iumiae ; 
Belgae,  quae  est  tertia  pars,  the  Belgians,  who  are  the  third  part. 

4.  Sometimes  the  Relative  takes  its  gender  and  number  from  the 
meaning  of  its  antecedent  ;  as,  — 

pars  qui  bestiis  object!  sunt,  a  part  (of  the  men)  who  were  thrown 
to  beasts. 

5.  Occasionally  the  Relative  is  attracted  into  the  case  of  its  ante- 
cedent; as, — 

natus  eo  patre  quo  dixi,  born  of  the  father  that  I  said. 

251.    Antecedent.     I.   The  antecedent  of  the  Relative  is 
sometimes  omitted  ;  as,  — 
qui  naturam  sequitur  sapiens  est,  he  who  follows  Nature  is  wise. 

.  2.    The  antecedent  may  be  implied  in  a  possessive  pronoun  (or 
rarely  an  adjective)  ;  as,  — 

nostra  qui  remansimus  caedes,  the  slaughter  of  us  who  re?nained', 
servili  tumultu,  quos  usus  ac  disciplina  sublevarunt,  at  the  up- 
rising of  the  slaves,  whom  experie7ice  and  discipline  assisted 
(servili  =  servorum). 

3.  Sometimes  the  antecedent  is  repeated  with  the  Relative;  as, — 
erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus,  there  were  two  routes,  by  which 

{routes). 

4.  Incorporation   of   Antecedent  in  Relative    Clause.      The 
antecedent  is  often  incorporated  in  the  relative  clause.     Thus  :  — 

a)  When  the  relative  clause  stands  first ;  as,  — 

quam  quisque  novit  artem,  in  hac  se  exerceat,  let  each 
one  practice  the  branch  which  he  knows. 

b)  When  the  antecedent  is  an  appositive  ;  as,  — 

non  longe  a  Tolosatium  finibus  absurit,  quae  civitas 
est  in  provincia,  they  are  not  far  from  the  borders  of 
the  Tolosates,  a  state  which  is  in  our  province. 

c)  When  the  logical  antecedent  is  a  superlative ;  as,  — 
Themistocles  de  servis  suis,  quern  habuit  iidelissimum, 

misit,  Themistocles  sent  the  most  trusty  slave  he  had. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.— INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.     1 63 

d)  In  expressions  of  the  following  type  — 

qua  es  prudentia ;  quae  tua  est  prudentia,  such  is  your 
prudence  (lit.  of  which  prtidence  you  are;  which  is  your 
prudence^ . 

5.  The  Relative  is  never  omitted  in  Latin  as  it  is  in  English.  Thus 
the  boy  I  saw  must  be  puer  quera  vidi.   - 

6.  The  Relative  is  used  freely  in  Latin,  particularly  at  the  beginning 
of  a  sentence,  where  in  English  we  employ  a  demonstrate  ve ;  as,  — 

quo  factum  est,  by  this  it  happened ; 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so  ; 

quibus  rebus  cognitis,  wheft  these  things  beca?ne  known. 

7.  The  Relative  introducing  a  subordinate  clause  may  belong 
grammatically  to  a  clause  which  is  subordinate  to  the  one  it  introduces ; 
as,— 

numquam  digne  satis  laudari  philosophia  poterit,  cui  qui 
pareat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine  molestia  possit  degere, 
philosophy  can  never  be  praised  etiough^  since  he  who  obeys  her 
can  pass  every  period  of  life  without  annoyance  (lit.  he  who  obeys 
which^  etc.). 

Here  cui  introduces  the  subordinate  clause  possit  and  connects  it  with 
philosophia ;  but  cui  is  governed  by  pareat,  which  is  subordinate  to 
possit. 

INDEFINITE   PRONOUNS. 

252.    I.    Quis,  any  one.,  is  the  weakest  of  the  Indefinites,  and  stands 
usually  in  combination  with  si,  nisi,  ne,  num  ;  as,  — 
si  quis  put  at,  if  any  one  thinks. 

2.  Aliquis  (adj.  aliqui)  is  more  definite  than  quis,  and  corre- 
sponds usually  to  the  English  some  one,  so7nebody,  so^ne ;  as, — 

nunc  aliquis  dicat  mihi,  now  let  somebody  tell  me ; 

utinam  modo  agatur  aliquid,  oh  that  something  may  be  done. 

3.  Quidam,  a  certain  one,  is  still  more  definite  than  aliquis  ;  as, — 

hom5  quidam,  a  certain  man  {i.e.  07ie  whom  I  have  in  mind). 

a.   Quidam    (with  or  without  quasi,  as  if)   is  sometimes  used  in  the 
sense :  a  sort  of,  kind  of;  as,  — 
cognatio  quae  dam,  a  sort  0/ relationship  ; 
mors  est  quasi  quaedam  migratio,  death  is  a  kind  of  transfer, 

as  it  were. 


164  SYNTAX. 


4.  Quisquam,  any  one,  any  one  whoever  (more  general  than  qiiis), 
and  its  corresponding  adjective  ullus,  any,  occur  mostly  in  negative 
and  conditional  sentences,  in  interrogative  sentences  implying  a  negative, 
and  in  clauses  of  comparison  ;  as,  — 

justitia  numquam  nocet  oxxic^dixa.,  justice  never  harms  anybody ; 
SI  quisquam,  Cato  sapiens  fuit,  if  anybody  was  ever  wise,  Cato  was; 
potestne  quisquam  sine  perturbatione  animi  irasci,  can  anybody 

be  angry  without  excitement  ? 
SI  uUo  modo  poterit,  if  it  can  be  done  in  any  way, 
taetrior  hic  tyrannus  fuit  quam  quisquam  superiorum,  he  was  a 

viler  tyrant  than  any  of  his  predecessors. 

5.  Quisque,  each  one,  is  used  especially  under  the  following  circum- 
stances : — 

a)  In  connection  with  suus.     See  §  244.  4.  a- 

b)  In  connection   with  a  Relative  or  Interrogative   Pronoun; 

as, — 

quod  cuique  obtigit,  id  tone  at,  what  falls  to  each,  that  let 
him  hold. 

^)  In  connection  with  superlatives;  as,— 

optimus  quisque,  all  the  best  (lit.  each  best  one'). 

d)  With  ordinal  numerals ;  as, — 

quint  6  quoque  ann5,  every  four  years  (lit.  each  fifth  year). 

6.  Nemo,  no  one,  in  addition  to  its  other  uses,  stands  regularly  with 
adjectives  used  substantively ;  as,  — 

nemo  mortalis,  no  mortal; 
nemo  Romanus,  no  Ro7nan. 

PRONOMINAL    ADJECTIVES. 
2S3.    I-   Alius,  another,  and  alter,  the  other,  are  often  used  correl- 
atively;  as, — 

aliud  loquitur,  aliud  sentit,  he  says  one  thing,  he  thinks  another ; 
alii  resistunt,  alii  fugiunt,  some  resist,  others  flee; 
alter  exeroitum  perdidit,  alter  vendidit,  one  ruined  the  army,  the 

other  sold  it ; 
alter!  se  in  montem  reoeperunt,  alter!  ad  impedimenta  se  contu- 

lerunt,  the  one  party  retreated  to  the  mountain,  the  others  betook 

themselves  to  the  baggage. 


AGREEMENT  OF  VERB   WITH  SUBJECT.  1 65 

2.  Where  the  English  says  one  does  one  thing,  another  another^  the 
Latin  uses  a  more  condensed  form  of  statement ;  as,  — 

alius  aliud  amat,  one  likes  one  thing,  another  another ; 
aliud  aliis  placet,  one  thing  pleases  some,  another  others. 

a.  So  sometimes  with  adverbs ;  as, — 

alii  alio  fugiunt,  some  flee  in  o?ie  direction,  others  in  another. 

3.  The  Latin  also  expresses  the  notion  '-each  other''  by  means  of 
alius  repeated  ;  as,  — 

Gain  alius  alium  cohortati  sunt,  the  Gauls  encouraged  each  other. 

4.  Ceteri  means  the  rest,  all  the  others ;  as,  — 

ceteris  praestare,  to  be  superior  to  all  the  others. 

5.  Reliqui  means  the  others  in  the  sense  of  the  rest,  those  remain- 
ing, —  hence  is  the  regular  word  with  numerals  ;  as,  — 

reliqui  sex,  the  six  others. 

6.  Nescio   quis  forms   a  compound   indefinite   pronoun  with    the 
force  of  some  one  or  other ;  as,  — 

causidicus  nescio  quis,  some  pettifogger  or  other ; 
misit  nescio  quern,  he  sent  so?ne  one  or  other ; 
nescio  quo  pacto,  somehow  or  other. 


Chapter    V.  —  Syntax  of  Verbs. 

AGREEMENT. 

"With  One  Subject. 

254.       I.    Agreement    in  Number  and   Person.      A    Finite 
Verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  Number  and  Person ;  as,  — 
v6s  videtis,  you  see ; 
pater  filids  instituit,  the  father  trains  his  sons. 

2.    Agreement  in  Gender.     In  the  compound  forms  of  the  verb 
the  participle  regularly  agrees  with  its  subject  in  gender ;  as,  — 
seditio  repressa  est,  the  mutiny  was  checked. 


1 66  SYNTAX. 


3.  But  when  a  predicate  noun  is  of  different  gender  or  number  from 
its  subject,  the  verb  usually  agrees  with  its  nearest  substantive ;  as,  — 
Tarquinii  materna   patria   erat,    Tarqiiinii  was  his  native  country 

on  his  motker'^s  side ; 
non  omnis  error  stiiltitia  est  dioenda,  not  every  error  is  to  be  called 
folly. 

a.    Less  frequently  the  verb  agrees  with  an  appositive  ;  as,  — 

Corioli,  oppidum  Volscorum,  captum  est,  Corioli,  a  town  of  the 
Volsci,  was  captured. 

4.  Construction  according  to  Sense.  Sometimes  the  verb 
agrees  with  its  subject  according  to  sense  instead  of  strict  grammatical 
form.     Thus:  — 

a)  Ih  Number ;  as,  —  ., 

multitude  hominum  convenerant,  a  crowd  of  ?nen  had 
gathered. 

b)  In  Gender ;  as,  — 

duo  milia  crucibus  adfixi  sunt,  two  thousand  {men)  were 
crucified. 

With  T-wo  or  More  Subjects. 
255.      I.    Agreement  in  Number.      With  two  or  more  sub- 
jects the  verb  is  regularly  plural ;  as,  — 

pater  et  fHius  mortui  sunt,  the  father  and  son  died. 

2.  But  sometimes  the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject ;  viz.,  — 

a)  When  the   verb  precedes  both  subjects  or   stands    between 
them ;  as,  — 

mortuus  est  pater  et  filius  ; 
pater  mortuus  est  et  filius. 

b)  When  the  subjects  are  connected  by  aut;    aut  .  .  .  aut; 
vel  .   .  .  vel ;  neque  .  .  .  neque ;  as,  — 

neque  pater  neque  filius  mortuus  est,  neither  father  nor 
son  died. 

3.  When  the  different  subjects  are  felt  together  as  constituting  a 
whole,  the  singular  is  used ;  as,  — 

temeritas  ignoratioque  vitiosa  est,  rashness  and  ignorance  are  bad. 
a.  This  is  regularly  the  case  in  senatus  populusque  Romanus. 


VOICES.  —  TENSES.  167 

4.  Agreement  in  Person.  With  compound  subjects  of  different 
persons  the  verb  always  takes  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second, 
and  the  secoiid  rather  than  the  third]  as,  — 

SI  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  if  you  and  Tullia 
are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well. 

5.  Agreement  in  Gender.  With  subjects  of  different  genders  the 
participle  in  the  compound  tenses  follows  the  same  principles  as  laid 
down  for  predicate  adjectives.     See  §  235,  B,  2. 

VOICES. 

256.  I.  The  Passive  Voice  sometimes  retains  traces  of  its  original 
middle  or  reflexive  meaning ;  as,  — 

ego  non  patiar  eum  defend!,  /  shall  not  allow  him  to  defend  himself. 

2.  In  imitation  of  Greek  usage  many  perfect  passive  participles  are 
used  by  the  poets  as  indirect  middles,  i.e.  the  subject  is  viewed  as  act- 
ing not  upon  itself,  but  as  doing  something  in  his  own  interest ;  as,  — 

velatus  tempora,  having  veiled  his  temples. 

a.    Occasionally  finite  forms  of  the  verb  are  thus  used ;  as, — 
tunica  indticitur  artus,  he  covers  his  limbs  with  a  tunic. 

3.  Intransitive  Verbs  may  be  used  impersonally  in  the  passive  ;  as,  — 

curritur,  people  run  (lit.  //  is  run)  ; 

ventum  est,  he  {they,  etc.)  came  (lit.  //  was  come). 

TENSES. 

TENSES   OF   THE   INDICATIVE. 

257.  I.  The  Latin  tenses  express  two  distinct  no- 
tions :  — 

a)  The  period  of  time  to  which  the  action  belongs  : 

Present,  Past,  or  Future. 
U)  The  kind  of  action:    Undefined,    Going   on,  or 

Completed. 

The  Latin  with  its  six  tenses  is  able  to  express  each  of  the  three 
kinds  of  action  for  each  of  the  three  periods  of  time  (making  practically 


i68 


SYNTAX. 


nine  tenses).     It  does  this  by  employing  certain  tenses  in  more  than 
one  way,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  following  table :  — 

PERIOD   OF  TIME. 


Present. 

Past. 

Future. 

Undefined. 

Present : 

Historical  Perfect : 

Future : 

scribo,  /  wri^g. 

scripsi,  /  wrote. 

scribam,  /  shall 
■write. 

Going  on. 

Present : 

Imperfect: 

Future : 

scribo,     /     am 

scribebam,     / 

scribam,  /  shall 

writing. 

was   writing. 

be  writing. 

Completed. 

Present  Perfect : 

Pluperfect : 

Future  Perfect : 

scripsi,    /   have 

scripseram,    / 

scripsero,         / 

written. 

had  written. 

shall  have  writ- 
ten. 

2.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Present  may  express  Undefined  action 
or  action  Going  on  ;  so  also  the  Future.  The  Perfect  likewise  has  a 
double  use,  according  as  it  denotes  action  Completed  in  present  time 
(Present  Perfect)  or  Undefined  action  belonging  to  past  time  (Historical 
Perfect). 

Principal  and  Historical  Tenses. 

258.  Tenses  which  denote  Present  or  Future  time  are 
called  Principal  (or  Primary)  Tenses ;  those  which  denote 
Past  time  are  called  Historical  (or  Secondary). 

The  Principal  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  are :  Present, 
Future,  Present  Perfect,  Future  Perfect. 

The  Historical  Tenses  are :  Imperfect,  Historical  Per- 
fect, Pluperfect. 

Present  Indicative. 

259.  Besides  the  two  uses  indicated  in  the  table,  the 
Present  Indicative  presents  the  following  peculiarities :  — 

I.    It  is  used   to  denote  a  general  truth,  i.e.    something  true  not 
merely  in  the  present  but  at  all  times  ('  Gnomic  Present ')  ;  as,  — 
virtus  conciliat  amicitias  et  conservat,  virtue  establishes  ties  of 
friendship  and  maintains  them  (i.e.  always  does  so). 


TENSES.  169 


2.  It  is  used  of  an  attempted  action  ('Conative  Present')  ;  as, — 
dum  vitant  vitia,  in  contraria   currunt,  while  they  try  to  avoid 

(vitant)  vices^  they  rush  into  opposite  o?ies. 

3.  In  lively  narration  the  Present"  is  often  used  of  a  past  action 
(*  Historical  Present ')  ;  as,  — 

Caesaf  imperat   magnum   numerum    obsidum,    Caesar  de?nanded 
a  large  number  of  hostages  (lit.  demafids). 

4.  In  combination  with  jam,  jam  diu,  jam  pridem,  and  similar 
words,  the  Present  is  frequently  used  of  an  action  originating  in  the 
past  and  continuing  in  the  present ;  as,  — 

jam  pridem  cupio  te  visere,  /  haue  long  been  desiring  to  visit  you 
(i.e.  I  desire  and  have  long  desired). 

Imperfect  Indicative. 

260.  I.  The  Imperfect  primarily  denotes  action  going 
on  in  past  time  ;  as,  -^^ 

librum  legebam,  /  was  reading  a  book. 

a.    This  force  makes  the  Imperfect  especially  adapted  to  serve 
as  the  tense  of  description  (as  opposed  to  mere  narratiori) . 

2.  From  the  notion  of  action  going  on.,  there  easily  develops  the 
notion  of  repeated  or  c2istoinary  action  ;  as,  — 

legates  interrogabat,  he  kept  asking  the  envoys  ; 

C.  Duilium  videbam  puer,  as  a  boy  I  often  used  to  see  Gaius  Duilius. 

3.  The  Imperfect  often  denotes  an  attempted  action  ('Conative  Im- 
perfect') or  an  action  as  beginning  ('Inceptive  Imperfect')  ;  as, — 
hostes  nostros  intra  munitiones  progredi  prohibebant,  the  enemy 

tried  to  prevent  (prohibebant)  our  menfroin  advancitig  within 
the  fortifications  ('  Conative  ')  ; 
ad  proelium  se  expediebant,  they  were  beginning  to  get  ready  for 
battle  ('Inceptive'). 

4.  The  Imperfect,  with  jam,  jam  diu,  jam  dudum,  etc.,  is  some- 
times used  of  an  action  which  had  been  continuing  some  time ;  as,  — 
domicilium  Romae  multos  jam  annos  habebat,  he  had  had  his 

residence  at  Rome  for  many  years  (i.e.  he  had  it  at  this  time 
and  had  long  had  it). 


I70  SYNTAX. 


Future  Indicative. 

261.  I.  The  Latin  is  mucli  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the  Future  than 
is  the  English.  We  say :  ^  If  he  comes^  I  shall  be  glad,''  where  we  really 
mean:  '•  If  he  shall  come ^  etc.  ,ln  such  cases  the  Latin  rarely  admits 
the  Present,  but  generally  employs  the  Future. 

2.    Sometimes  the  Future  has  Imperative  force;  as,  dices,  sc^y  I 

Perfect  Indicative. 

262.  A.  Present  Perfect.  Several  Present  Perfects  denote  the 
state  resulting  from  a  completed  act,  and  so  seem  equivalent  to  the 
Present;  as, — 

novi,  cognovi,  I  know  (lit.  I  have  become  acquainted  ivith)  ; 
consuevi,  I  a?n  wont  (lit.  I  have  become  accustomed^ . 
B.   Historical  Perfect.     The  Historical  Perfect  is  the  tense  of 
narration  (as  opposed  to  the  Imperfect,  the  tense  of  description')  ;  as, — 
Regulus  in  senatum  venit,  mandata  exposuit,  reddi  captives 
negavit  esse  utile,  Regulus  came  into  the  Senate,  set  forth  his 
commission,  said  it  was  useless  for  captives  to  be  returned. 
I.    Occasionally  the  Historical  Perfect  is  used  of  a  general  truth  ('  Gnomic 
Perfect'). 

Pluperfect  Indicative. 

263.  The  Latin  Pluperfect,  like  the  English  Past  Per- 
fect, denotes  an  act  completed  in  the  past ;  as, — 

Caesar  Rhenum  transire  decreverat,  sed  naves  deerant,  Caesar 
had  decided  to  cross  the  Rhi^te,  but  had  no  boats. 
a.   In  those  verbs  whose  Perfect  has  Present  force  (§  262,  A), 

the  Pluperfect  has  the  force  of  an  Imperfect;  as, — 

noveram,  /  knew. 

Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

264.  The  Future  Perfect  denotes  an  action  completed  in 
future  tim,e.     Thus  :  — 

scribam  epistulam,  cum  redieris,  /  will  write  the  letter  when  you 
have  returned  (lit.  when  you  shall  have  retur7ted). 

a.  The  Latin  is  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the  Future  Per- 
fect than  the  English,  which  commonly  employs  the  Present 
Perfect  instead  of  the  Future  Perfect. 

b.  In  those  verbs  whose  Perfect  has  Present  force  (§  262,  A) 
the  Future  Perfect  has  the  force  of  a  Future  ;  as,  — 
novero,  /  shall  know. 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES.  I71 

Epistolary  Tenses. 

265.  In  letters  the  writer  often  uses  tenses  which  are  not  appro- 
priate at  the  time  of  writing,  but  which  will  be  so  at  the  time  when  his 
letter  is  received;  he  thus  employs  the  Imperfect  and  the  Perfect  for 
the  Present,  and  the  Pluperfect  for  the  Present  Perfect ;  as,  — 

tiihil  habebam  quod  soriberem,  neque  enim  novi  quidquam 
audieram  et  ad  tuas  omnes  epistulas  jam  rescripseram, 
/  have  nothing  to  write,  for  I  have  heard  no  news  and  have 
already  answered  all  your  letters. 

TENSES   OF   THE   SUBJUNCTIVE. 

266.  A.    In  Independent  Sentences.      See  §§  272-280. 

B.  In  Dependent  Sentences.  In  dependent  sentences  the 
tenses  of  the  subjunctive  usually  conform  to  the  so-called 

Sequence  of  Tenses. 

267.  I.  In  the  Subjunctive  the  Present  and  Perfect  are 
Principal  tenses,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  Historical. 

2.  By  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  Principal  tenses  are  fol- 
lowed by  Principal,  Historical  by  Historical.     Thus  :  — 

Principal  Sequence, — 

videS  quid  facias,  I  see  what  you  are  doing. 
videbo  quid  facias,  /  shall  see  what  you  are  doing. 
videro  quid  facias,  I  shall  have  seen  what  you  are  doing. 
video  quid  feceris,  I  see  what  you  have  done. 
videbo  quid  feceris,  I  shall  see  what  you  have  done. 
videro  quid  feceris,  I  shall  have  seen  what  you  have  done. 

Historical  Sequence, — 

videbam  quid  faceres,  I  saw  what  you  were  doing. 
vidi  quid  faceres,  I  saw  what  you  were  doing. 
videram  quid  faceres,  I  had  seen  what  yoic  were  doing. 
videbam  quid  fecisses,  I  saw  what  you  had  done. 
vidi  quid  fecisses,  /  saw  what  you  had  done. 
videram  quid  fecisses,  /  had  seen  what  you  had  done. 

3.  The  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive  denote  incomplete 
action,  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  completed  action,  exactly  as  in  the 
Indicative. 


172  SYNTAX. 


Peculiarities  of  Sequence. 

268.  I.  The  Perfect  Indicative  is  usually  an  historical  tense  (even 
when  translated  in  English  ^.s  a  Present  Perfect),  and  so  is  followed  by 
the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  ;  as,  — 

demonstravi  quare  ad  causam  accederem,  /  have  shoum  why  I 
took  the  case  (lit.  /  showed  why,  etc.). 

2.  A  dependent  Perfect  Infinitive  is  treated  as  an  historical  tense 
wherever,  if  resolved  into  an  equivalent  Indicative,  it  would  be  his- 
torical ;  as,  — 

videor  ostendisse  quales  del  essent,  I  seem  to  have  shown  of  what 
nature  the  gods  are  (ostendisse  here  corresponds  to  an  Indica- 
tive, ostendi,  /  showed). 

3.  The  Historical  Present  is  sometimes  regarded  as  a  principal 
tense,  sometimes  as  historical.     Thus  :  — 

Sulla  suos  hortatur  ut  forti  animo  sint,  S^illa  exhorts  his  soldiers 

to  be  stout-hearted ; 
Gallos  hortatur  ut  arma  caperent,  he  exhorted  the  Gauls  to  take 
arms. 

4.  Conditional    sentences    of  the   'contrary-to-fact'   type   are   not 
affected  by  the  principles  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses  ;  as,  — 
honestum  tale  est  ut,  vel  si  ignorarent  id  homines,  sua  tamen 

pulchritudine  laudabile  esset,  virtue  is  such  a  thing  that 
even  if  men  were  ignorant  of  it,  it  would  still  be  worthy  of 
praise  for  its  own  loveliness. 

5.  In  conditional  sentences  of  the  '  contrary-to-fact '  type  the  Imper- 
fect Subjunctive  is  usually  treated  as  an  Historical  tense ;  as,  — 

si  solos  eos  diceres  miseros,  quibus  moriendum  esset,  neminem 
tu  quidem  eorum  qui  viverent  exciperes,  if  you  called  only 
those  wretched  who  itiust  die,  you  woidd  except  no  one  of  those 
who  live. 

6.  In  clauses  of  Result  and  some  others,  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is 
sometimes  used  as  an  historical  tense.     Thus  :  — 

rex  tantum  mdtus  est,  ut  Tissaphernem  hostem  judicarit,  the 
king  was  so  7nuch  moved  that  he  adjudged  Tissaphernes  an 
enemy. 
This  construction  is  rare  in  Cicero,  but  frequent  in  Nepos  and  sub- 
sequent historians.     The  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  this  use  represents  a 


I 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES.  1 73 

result  simply  as  a  fact  without  reference  to  the  continuance  of  the  act, 
and  therefore  corresponds  to  an  Historical  Perfect  Indicative  of  direct 
statement.  Thus,  judicarit  in  the  above  example  corresponds  to 
a  judicavit,  he  adjudged.  To  denote  a  result  as  something  continuous, 
all  writers  use  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  after  historical  tenses. 

.  7.    Sometimes  perspicuity  demands  that  the  ordinary  principles  of 
Sequence  be  abandoned  altogether.     Thus  :  — 

«)  We  may  have  the  Present  or  Perfect   Subjunctive  after  an 
historical  tense  ;  as,  — 

Verres  Sioiliam  ita  perdidit  ut  ea  restitui  iion  possit, 
Verres  so  ruined  Sicily  that  it  cannot  be  restored 
(Direct  statement :  non  potest  restitui)  ; 
ardebat  Hortensius  dioendi  cupiditate  sic,  ut  in  nuUo 
flagrantius  studium  viderim,  Hortensius  burned  so 
with  eagerness  to  speak  that  I  have  seen  in  no  one  a 
greater  desire  (Direct  statement:  in  nuUo  vidi,  I  have 
seen  in  no  one') . 

Note.  —  This  usage  is  different  from  that  cited  under  6.  Here,  by  neglect  of 
Sequence,  the  Perfect  is  used,  though  a  principal  tense ;  there  the  Perfect  was  used 
as  an  historical  tense. 

b)  We  may  have  a  principal  tense  followed  by  the  Perfect  Sub- 
junctive used  historically ;  as,  — 
nescio   quid  causae  fuerit   cur  nuUas    ad  me  litteras 

dares,  /  do  not  know  what  reason  there  was  why  you 

did  not  send  me  a  letter. 
Here  fuerit  is  historical,  as  is  shown  by  the  following  Im- 
perfect Subjunctive. 

Method  of  Expressing  Future  Time  in  the  Subjunctive. 

269.  The  Future  and  Future  Perfect,  which  are  lacking 
to  the  Latin  Subjunctive,  are  supplied  in  subordinate 
clauses  as  follows :  — 

I.   a)  The  Future  is  supplied  by  the  Present  after  principal  tenses, 
by  the  Imperfect  after  historical  tenses. 
b)  The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied  by  the  Perfect  after  principal 
tenses,  by  the  Pluperfect  after  historical  tenses. 

This  is  especially  frequent  when  the  context  clearly  shows, 
by  the  presence  of  a  future  tense  in  the  main  clause,  that  the 
reference  is  to  future  time.     Thus  :  — 


174  SYNTAX. 


Galli  poUicentur  se   facturos,  quae    Caesar   imperet,  the    Gauls 

promise  they  will  do  what  Caesar  shall  order ; 
Galli  poUicebantur  se  facturos,  quae  Caesar  imperaret,  the  Gauls 

pro?nised  they  would  do  what  Caesar  should  order ; 
Gain  poUicentur  se  facturos  quae  Caesar  imperaverit,  the  Gauls 

promise  they  will  do  what  Caesar  shall  have  ordered; 
Gain  poUicebantur  se  facturos   quae  Caesar   imperavisset,  the 

Gauls  promised  they  woidd  do  what  Caesar  should  have  ordered. 

2.  Even  where  the  context  does  not  contain  a  Future  tense  in  th.e 
main  clause,  Future  time  is  often  expressed  in  the  subordinate  clauses 
by  the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive.     Thus  :  — 

timeo  ne  veniat,  /  am  afraid  he  will  come ; 

Caesar  exspectabat   quid   consili  hostes    caperentj  Caesar  was 
waiting  to  see  what  plan  the  enemy  woidd  adopt. 

3.  Where  greater  definiteness  is  necessary,  the  periphrastic  forms 
in  -urus  sim  and  -urus  essem  are  employed,  especially  in  clauses  of 
Result,  Indirect  Questions,  and  after  non  dubito  quin  ;  as,  — 

non  dubito  quin  pater  venturus  sit,  I  do  not  doubt  that  my  father 

will  come ; 
non  dubitabam  quin  pater  venturus  esset,  /  did  not  doubt  that 

my  father  would  come. 

4.  Where  the  verb  has  no  Future  Active  Participle,  or  where  it 
stands  in  the  passive  voice,  its  Future  character  may  be  indicated  by 
the  use  of  the  particles  mox,  brevi,  statim,  etc.,  in  connection  with 
the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive;  as, — 

non  dubito  quin  te  mox  hujus  rei  paeniteat,  I  do  not  doubt  that 

you  will  soon  repent  of  this  thing; 
non  dubitabam  quin  haec  res  brevi  conficeretur,  /  did  not  doubt 

that  this  thing  woidd  soon  be  finished. 

TENSES    OF   THE   INFINITIVE. 
270.    I.    The  tenses  of  the    Infinitive  denote  time   not 
absolutely,  but  with  reference   to   the  verb  on  which  they 
depend.     Thus :  — 

a)  The  Present  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  contemporaneous 
with  the  time  of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 
videtur  honores  adsequi,  he  seems  to  be  gaining  honors ; 
videbatnr  honores  adsequi,  he  seetnedto  be  gaining  honors. 


TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE.  1 75 

b)  The  Perfect  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  prior  to  the  time 
of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 

videtur  honores  adsecutus  esse,  he  seems  to  have  gained 

honors  ; 
visus  est   honores    adsecutus    esse,   he  seemed  to  have 
gained  honors. 

c)  The  Future  Infinitive  represents  an  act  as  subsequent  to  that 
of  the  verb  on  which  it  depends  ;  as,  — 

vid§tur  honores  adsecuturus  esse,  he  seems  to  be  about  to 

gain  honors ; 
visus  est  honores  adsecuturus  esse,  he  seemed  to  be  about 

to  gain  honors. 

2.  Where  the  English  says  '  ought  to  have  done,''  '  might  have  done, 
etc.,  the  Latin  uses  debui,  oportuit,  potui  (debebam,  oportebat, 
poteram),  with  the  Present  Infinitive;  as, — 

debuit  dicere,  he  ought  to  have  said  (lit.  owed  it  to  say)  ; 
oportuit  venire,  he  ought  to  have  come ; 
potuit  videre,  he  might  have  seen. 

a.  Oportuit,  volo,  nolo  (and  in  poetry  some  other  verbs),  may  take  a 
Perfect  Infinitive  instead  of  the  Present ;  as,  — 

h5c  jam  pridem  factum  esse  oportuit,  this  ought  long  ago  to  have 
been  done. 

3.  Periphrastic  Future  Infinitive.  Verbs  that  have  no  Parti- 
cipial Stem,  express  the  Future  Infinitive  Active  and  Passive  by  fore 
ut  or  futurum  esse  ut,  with  the  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 

spero  fore  ut  te  paeniteat  levitatis,  /  hope  you  will  repent  of  your 

fickleness  (lit.  hope  it  will  happen  that  you  repent)  ; 
spero  futurum  esse  ut  hostes  arceantur,  /  hope  that  the  enemy  will 
be  kept  off. 

a.  The   Periphrastic   Future   Infinitive   is   often    used,    especially  in   the 
Passive,  even  in  case  of  verbs  which  have  the  Participial  Stem ;  as,  — 
spefo  fore  ut  hostes  vincantur,  /  hope  the  enemy  will  be  con- 
quered. 

4.  Passives  and  Deponents  sometimes  form  a  Future  Perfect  Infini- 
tive with  fore  ;  as,  — 

spero  epistulam  scriptam   fore,  /  hope  the   letter  will  have  been 

written ; 
dico    me    satis    adeptum    fore,    /  say   that   I  shall  have  gained 

enough. 


176  SYNTAX. 


THE    MOODS. 

MOODS    IN    INDEPENDENT    SENTENCES. 
The  Indicative  in  Independent  Sentences. 

271.  The  Indicative  is  used  for  the  statement  of  facts  ^ 
the  supposition  of  facts,  or  inquiry  after  facts. 

I.   Note  the  following  idiomatic  uses  :  — 

a)  With  possum  ;  as,  — 

possum  multa  dicere,  /  might  say  muck  ; 

poteram  multa  dicere,  /  tnight  have  said  ?nuch  (§  270,  2). 

b)  In  such    expressions  as  longum  est,  aequum    est,  melius 
estj  difBcile  est,  utilius  est,  and  some  others ;  as,  — 
longum  est  ea  dicere,  it  would  be  tedious  to  tell  that ; 
difficile  est  omnia  persequi,  it  would  be  difficult  to  enu- 
merate everything. 

The  Subjunctive  in  Independent  Sentences.         ' 

272.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  Independent  Sentences 
to  express  something  — 

1 .  As  -willed  —  Volitive  Subjunctive  ; 

2.  As  desired  —  Optative  Subjunctive  ; 

3.  Conceived  of  as  possible  —  Potential  Subjunctive. 

VOLITIVE    SUBJUNCTIVE. 

273.  The  Volitive  Subjunctive  represents  the  action  as 
willed.  It  always  impHes  authority  on  the  part  of  the 
speaker,  and  has  the  following  varieties  :  — 

A.  Hortatory  Subjunctive.  ' 

274.  The  Hortatory  Subjunctive  expresses  an  exhor- 
tation. This  use  is  confined  to  the  first  person  plural, 
of  the  Present.     The  negative  is  ne.     Thus  :  — 

eamus,  let  us  go ; 

amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country  ] 

ne  desperemus,  let  us  not  despair. 


THE   VOLITIVE   SUBJUNCTIVE.  1 77 


B.  Jussive  Subjunctive. 

275.  The  Jussive  Subjunctive  expresses  a  command. 
The  Jussive  stands  regularly  in  the  Present  Tense,  and 
is  used  — 

1 .  Most  frequently  in  the  third  singular  and  the  third  plural ;  as,  — 
die  at,  let  him  tell; 

dicant,  let  theifi  tell; 

quare  secedant  improbi,  wherefore  let  the  wicked  depart  I 

2.  Less  frequently  in  the  se-':ond  person,  often  with  indefinite 
force ;  as,  — 

isto  bono  utare,  ttse  that  adva^ttage  ; 
modeste  vivas,  live  temperately. 

C.  Prohibitive  Subjunctive. 

276.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  second  and  third 
persons  singular  and  plural,  with  ne,  to  express  a  prohibi- 
tion. Both  Present  and  Perfect  occur,  and  vi^ithout  appre- 
ciable difference  of  meaning  ;  as,  — 

ne  repugnetis,  do  not  resist  I 
tu  vero  istam  ne  reliqueris,  doiCt  leave  her  I 
impii  ne  placare  audeant  deos,  let  not  the  ijnpious  dare  to 
appease  the  gods ! 

a.  Neither  of  these  constructions  is  frequent  in  classical  prose. 

b.  A  commoner  method  of  expressing  a  prohibition  in  the  second 
person  is  by  the  use  of  noli  (nolite)  with  a  following  infini- 
tive, or  by  cave  or  cave  ne  with  the  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 
noli  hoc  facere,  don'^t  do  this  (lit.  be  unwilling  to  do)  ! 
nolite  mentiri,  do  not  lie  I 

cave  ignoscas,  cave  te  misereat,  do  not  forgive,  do  not 

pity ! 
cave   ne   haec   facias,  do  not  do  this    (lit.   take  care  lest 

yotc  do) ! 

D.  Deliberative  Subjunctive. 

277.  The  Deliberative  Subjunctive  is  used  in  questions 
and  exclamations  implying  doubt^  indignation,  the  impos- 
sibility of  an  act,  obligation,  or  propriety.     The  Present  is 


178  SYNTAX. 


used  referring  to  present  time,  the  Imperfect  referring 
to  past.     The  negative  is  non.     Thus  :  — 

quid  f  aciam,  what  shall  I  do? 

ego  redeam,  I  go  back ! 

huic  cedamus!  hujus  condiciones  audiamus!  are  we  to 
bow  to  hi?n  !  are  we  to  listen  to  his  terms  I 

quid  facerem,  what  was  I  to  do? 

hunc  ego  non  diligam,  should  I  not  cherish  this  man  ? 

a.  These   Deliberative  Questions  are  usually  purely  Rhetorical  in   char- 
acter, and  do  not  expect  an  answer. 

E.  Concessive  Subjunctive. 

278.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  indicate  something  as 
granted  or  conceded  for  the  sake  of  argument.  The  Present 
is  used  for  present  time,  the  Perfect  regularly  for  past. 
The  negative  is  ne.     Thus  :  — 

sit  hoc  verum,  I  grant  that  this  is  true  (lit.  let  this  be  true')  ; 
ne  sint  in  senectiite  vires,  I graiit  there  is  not  strength  in  old  age ; 
fuerit  malus  civis  aliis ;  tibi  quando  esse  coepit,  /  grant  that  he 
was  a  bad-citizen  to  others ;  when  did  he  begin  to  be  so  toward  you  f 

OPTATIVE    SUBJUNCTIVE. 

279.  The  Optative  Subjunctive  occurs  in  expressions  of 
wishing.     The  negative  is  regularly  ne. 

1 .  The  Present  Tense,  often  accompanied  by  utinam,  is  used  where 
the  wish  is  conceived  oi  as  possible. 

di  istaec  prohibeant,  may  the  gods  prevent  that ! 

falsus  utinam  vates  sim,  oh  that  I  may  be  a  false  prophet  I 

ne  veniant,  may  they  not  co77ie! 

2.  The  Imperfect  expresses,  in  the  form  of  a  wish,  the  regret  that 
something  is  not  so  now;  the  Pluperfect  that  something  was  not  so  in 
the  past.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  regularly  accompanied  by 
utinam ;  as,  — 

utinam  istud  ex  animo  diceres,  would  that  you  were  saying  that  in 
earnest  {i.e.  I  regret  that  you  are  not  saying  it  in  earnest) ; 

Pelides  utinam  vitasset  Apollinis  arcus,  would  that  Achilles  had 
escaped  the  bow  of  Apollo ; 

utinam  ne  natus  essem,  would  that  I.  had  not  been  born. 


THE  POTENTIAL   SUBJUJ^CTIVE.  I79 

POTENTIAL   SUBJUNCTIVE. 
280.    The  Potential  Subjunctive  expresses  a  possibility. 
The  negative  is  non.     The  following  uses  are  to  be  noted :  — 

1.  The  'May'  Potential.  —  The  Potential  Subjunctive  may  desig- 
nate a  mere  possibility  (English  auxiliary  may).  Both  Present  and 
Perfect  occur,  and  without  appreciable  difference  of  meaning.     Thus  :  — 

dicat  aliquis,  so7ne  one  may  say ; 
dixerit  aliquis,  some  o?ie  may  say. 

a.   This  construction  is  by  no  means  frequent,  and  is  confined 
mainly  to  a  few  phrases  like  those  given  as  examples. 

2.  '  Should '-' Would  '    Potential.  —  The    Potential    Subjunctive 
may  represent  something  as  depending  upon  a  condition  expressed  or 
understood  (English  auxiliary  shotild,  woidd).     Both  Present  and  Per- 
fect occur,  and  without  appreciable  difference  of  meaning.     Thus  :  — 
fortunam  citius  reperias  quam  retineas,  one  would  more  quickly  find 

Fortune  tha7i  keep  it  (i.e.  if  one  should  make  the  trial)  ; 
crediderim,  /  should  believe. 

a.  Here  belongs  the  use  of  velim,  malim,  nolim,  as  softened 
forms  of  statement  lor  volo,  malo,  nolo.     Thus  :  — 
velim  mihi  ignoscas,  I  wish  you  would  forgive  me; 
nolim  putes  me  jocari,  /  donH  want  you  to  think  Pm  joking. 

b.  When  the  condition  is  expressed,  we  get  one  of  the  regular 
types  of  Conditional  Sentences  (see  §  303)  ;  as,  — 

dies  deficiat,  si  coner  enumerare   causas,  time  would 
fail  if  I  sho7ild  attempt  to  emimerate  the  reasons. 

3.  'Can '-'Could' Potential.— In  the  Present  and  Imperfect  the 
Potential  occurs  in  the  second  person  singular  (with  indefinite  force  ; 
§  356?  3)  of  a  few  verbs  oi perceivings  seeing.^  thinkings  and  the  like  ;  as, — 

videas,  cernas,  one  can  see,  one  can  perceive  ; 
crederes,  one  could  believe ; 
videres,  cerneres,  one  could  see,  perceive ; 
put  ares,  one  could  imagine. 

4.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  in  the  Apodosis  of  conditional 
sentences  of  the  contrary-to-fact  type  (see  §  304)  are  also  Potential  in 
character.  By  omission  of  the  Protasis,  such  an  Apodosis  sometimes 
stands  alone,  particularly  vellem,  noUem,  mallem  ;  as,  — 

vellem   id   quidem,  /  should  wish  that  {i.e.  were   I    bold 
enough) . 


l8o  SYNTAX. 


The  Iriiperative. 

281.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  admonitions, 
and  entreaties  (negative  ne) ;  as,  — 

egredere  ex  urbe,  depart  froui  the  city ; 
mihi  ignosce,  pardo7i  7ne ; 
^ra.le,/arewett. 

1.  The  Present  is  the  tense  of  the  Imperative  most  commonly  used, 
but  the  Future  is  employed  — 

a)  Where  there  is  a  distinct  reference  to  future  time,  especially 
in  the  apodosis  of  conditional  sentences  ;  as,  — 
rem  vobis  proponam  ;  vos  earn  penditote,  /  witt  lay  the 

matter  before  you  ;  do  you  (theji)  co7isider  it ; 
SI  bene  disputabit,  tribuito  litteris  Graecis,  if  he  shall 

speak  well,  attribute  it  to  Greek  literature. 

^)  In  laws,  treaties,  wills,  maxims,  etc. ;  as, — 

consules  summum  jus  habento,  the  consuls  shall  have 
siipretne  power ; 

hominem  mortuom  in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  no  one  shall  bury 
a  dead  body  in  the  city ; 

amicitia  regi  Antiocho  cum  populo  Romano  his  legi- 
bus  et  condioionibus  esto,  let  there  be  friendship  be- 
tween Antiochus  and  the  Roman  people  on  the  following 
terms  a7id  conditions ; 

quartae  esto  partis  Marcus  heres,  let  Marcus  be  heir  to 
a  fourth  {of  the  property^  ; 

ignoscitd  saepe  alteri,  numquam  ^i^oi,  forgive  your  neigh- 
bor often,  yourself  never. 

2.  Except  with  the  Future  Imperative  the  negative  is  not  used  in 
classical  prose.  Prohibitions  are  regularly  expressed  in  other  ways. 
See  §  276,  b. 

3.  Questions  in  the  Indicative  introduced  by  quin  {why  not?)  are 
often  equivalent  to  an  Imperative  or  to  the  Hortatory  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 
quTn  abis,  ^^  away  I  (lit.  why  don'' t  you  go  away  ?)  ; 

quin  vocem   continetis,  keep  still!    (lit.  why  don't  you  stop  your 

voices  f) ; 
quin  equos  conscendimus,  let  us  mount  our  horses  (lit.  why  do  we 

not  mount  our  horses  f^. 


CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE.  l8l 

MOODS   IN   DEPENDENT   CLAUSES. 
Clauses  of  Purpose. 
282.    I.    Clauses  of  Purpose  are  introduced  most   com- 
monly by  ut  (uti),  quo  {that,  in  order  that),  ne  {in  order  that 
not,  lest),  and  stand  in  the  Subjunctive;  as, — 
edimus  ut  vivamus,  we  eat  that  we  may  live ; 
adjuta  me  quo  hoc  fiat  facilius,  ketp  7?ie,  in  order  that  this  fnay  be 

done  7nore  easily ; 
portas  clausit,  ne  quam  oppidani  injuriam  acciperent,  he  closed 
the  gates,  lest  the  townspeople  shotdd  receive  any  injury. 

a.  Quo,  as  a  rule,  is  employed  only  when  the  purpose  clause 
contains  a  comparative  or  a  comparative  idea.  Occasional 
exceptions  occur;  as, — 

haec  faciunt  quo  Chremetem  absterreant,  they  are  doing 
this  ifi  order  to  frighten  Chreijies. 

b.  Ut  ne  is  sometimes  found  instead  of  ne.     Thus  :  — 

ut  ne  quid  neglegenter  agamus,  in  order  that  we  i7iay  not 
do  anything  carelessly. 

c.  Ut  non  (not  ne)  is  used  where  the  negation  belongs  to  some 
single  word,  instead  of  to  the  purpose  clause  as  a  whole. 
Thus :  — 

ut  non  ejectus  ad  alienos,  sed  invitatus  ad  tuos  vide- 
are,  that  you  may  seem  not  driven  ojit  among  strangers, 
but  invited  to  your  own  friends. 

d.  To  say  '■and  that  nof  or  'or  that  not,^  the  Latin  regularly 
uses  neve  (neu)  ;  as,  — 

ut  earum  rerum  vis  minueretur,  neu  ponti  nocerent, 
that  the  violence  of  these  things  might  be  lessened,  and 
that  they  might  7iot  harjtt  the  bridge ; 

profugit,  ne  caperetur  n^ve  interfioeretur,  he  fed,  that  he 
might  not  be  captured  or  killed. 

e.  But  neque  (for  neve)  is  sometimes  used  in  a  second  Purpose  Clause 
when  ut  stands  in  the  first,  and,  after  the  Augustan  era,  even  when  the 
first  clause  is  introduced  by  ne. 

/.  Purpose  Clauses,  sometimes  stand  in  apposition  with  a  preceding  noun 
or  pronoun;  as, — 

h§,C  causa,  ut  pacem  haberent,  on  this  account,  that  they  might 
have  peace. 


1 82  SYNTAX. 


2.  A  Relative  Pronoun  (qui)  or  Adverb  (ubi,  unde,  quo)  is  fre- 
quently used  to  introduce  a  Purpose  Clause ;  as.  — 

Helvetii  legates  mittunt,  qui  dicerent,  the  Helvetii  sent  envoys  to 

say  (lit.  who  should  say)  ; 
haec  habui,  de  senectute  quae  dicerem,  /  had  these  things  to  say 

about  old  age ; 
non  habebant  quo  se  reciperent,  they  had  no  place  to  which  to  flee 

(lit.  whither  they  might  flee'). 

a.   Qui  in  such  clauses  is  equivalent  to  ut  is,  ut  ego,  etc. ;  ubi  to  ut 
ibi ;  unde  to  ut  inde ;  quo  to  ut  eo. 

3.  Relative  Clauses  of  purpose  follow  dignus,  indignus,  and  ido- 
neus;  as, — 

idoneus  fuit  nem5  quein  imitarere,  there  was  no  one  suitable  for 
you  to  imitate  {cf.  nemo  fuit  quern  imitarere,  there  was  no 
one  for  you  to  imitate)  ; 

dignus  est  qui  aliquandd  imperet,  he  is  worthy  to  rule  so7netime. 

4.  Purpose  Clauses  often  depend  upon  something  to  be  supplied 
from  the  context  instead  of  upon  the  principal  verb  of  their  own  sen- 
tences ;  as,  — 

ut  haec  omnia  omittam,  abiimus,  to  pass  over  all  this^  (/  will  say 
that)  we  departed. 

Clauses  of  Characteristic. 

283.  I.  A  relative  clause  used  to  expj^ess  a  quality  or 
characteristic  of  a  general  or  indefinite  antecedent  is  called 
a  Clause  of  Characteristic,  and  usually  stands  in  the 
Subjunctive;  as, — 

multa  sunt,  quae  mentem  acuant,  there  are  many  things  which 
sharpen  the  wits. 

Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  opposed  to  those  relative  clauses  which 
are  used  merely  to  state  some  fact  about  a  definite  antecedent,  and 
which  therefore  take  the  Indicative  ;  as,  — 

Cato,  senex  jucundus,  qui  Sapiens  appellatus  est,  Cato,  a  delight- 
ful old  man,  who  was  called  '  The  IVise.'' 
The  Clause  of  Characteristic  implies  '  a  person  of  the  sort  that  does 
something''  \  the  Indicative  relative  clause  implies  ''  a  particular  person 
who  does  something.'' 


CLAUSES   OF   CHARACTERISTIC.  1 83 

2.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  used  especially  after  such  expressions 
as,  est  qui;  sunt  qui;  nemo  est  qui;  nullus  est  qui;  unus  est 
qui ;  solus  est  qui ;  quis  est  qui ;  is  qui ;  etc.     Thus  :  — 

sunt  qui  dicant,  there  are  {some)  who  say ; 

nemo  est  qui  nesciat,  there  is  Jiobody  who  is  ignorant ; 

sapientia  est  una  quae  maestitiam  pellat,  philosophy  is  the  only 

thing  that  drives  away  sorrow ; 
quae  civitas  est  quae  iion  everti  possit,  what  state  is  there  that 

cannot  be  overthrown  f 
non  is  sum  qui  improbos  laudem,  /  am  not  the  sort  of  7nan  that 

praises  the  wicked. 

a.  Sometimes  (very  rarely  in  Cicero  and  Caesar)  the  clause  of  characteris- 
tic is  used  after  comparatives  ;  as, — 
non  longius  hostes  aberant  quam  quo  telum  adigi  posset, 

the  enei7iy  were  not  too  far  off  for  a  dart  to  reach  them  {lit.  further 
off  than  [a  point]  to  which  a  dart  could  be  cast) . 

3.  The  Clause  of  Characteristic  often  conveys  an  accessory  notion 
of  cause  (since)  or  opposition  (althongh).     Thus:  — 

a)  Cause.     The  relative  is  then  frequently  accompanied  by  ut, 
quippe,  utpote  ;  as,  — 

6  fortunate  adulescens,  qui  tuae  virtutis  Homerum 
praeconem  inveneris,  O  fortunate  7nan^  since  you 
have  found  a  Homer  as  the  herald  of  yotir  valor ; 

ut  qui  Optimo  jure  eam  provinciam  obtinuerit,  since 
he  held  that  province  by  excellent  right. 

b)  Opposition :  — 

egomet  qui  sero  Graecas  litteras  attigissem,  tamen 
complures  dies  Athenis  commoratus  sum,  /,  al- 
though I  had  taken  up  Greek  literature  late  in  life, 
nevertheless  tarried  several  days  at  Athens. 

4.  Clauses  of  Characteristic  may  also  be  introduced  by  quin  =  qui 
(quae,  quod)  non  ;  as,  — 

nemo  est  quin  saepe   audierit,  there  is  no  one  who  has  not  often 

heard ; 
n,emo  f  uit  militum  quin  vulneraretur,  there  was  no  one  of  the  soldiers 

who  was  not  wounded. 

5.  Related  to  Clauses  of  Characteristic  are  also  phrases  of  the  type  : 
quod  sciam,  so  far  as  I  know,  quem  (quam,  quod),  audierim,  so 

far  as  I  have  heard. 


184  SYNTAX. 


Clauses  of  Result. 

284.  I.  Clauses  of  Result  are  usually  introduced  by  ut 
{thaty  so  that),  negative  ut  non  {so  that  not),  and  take  the 
Subjunctive.  The  main  clause  often  contains  tantus,  talis, 
tot,  is  ( =  talis),  tarn,  ita,  sic,  adeo,  or  some  similar  word. 
Thus :  — 
quia  tain  demens  est  ut  sua  voluntate  maereat,  who  is  so  senseless 

as  to  mourn  of  his  own  volition  f 
Sicilian!  ita  vastavit  ut  restitui  in  antiquum  statum  non  possit, 

he  so  ravaged  Sicily  that  it  ca7inot  be  restored  to  its  for^ner 

condition ; 
mons  altissimus  impendebat,  ut  facile  perpauci  prohibere  pos- 

sent,  a  very  high  mountain  overhung,  so  that  a  very  few  cotdd 

easily  stop  them ; 
non  is  es  ut  te  pudor  umquam  a  turpitudine  avocarit,  yo?^  are  not 

SO'  constituted  that  sha?ne  ever  called  you  back  from  baseness. 

2.  A  Result  Clause  is  often  introduced  by  a  Relative  Pronoun  or 
Adverb,  qui  (  =  ut  is),  quo  (  =  ut  eo),  etc. ;  as, — 

nemo  est  tam  senex  qui  se  annum  non  putet  posse  vivere,  nobody 

is  so  old  as  not  to  think  he  cati  live  a  year ; 
habetis  eum  consulem  qui  parere  vestris  decretis  non  dubitet, 

yoi^  have  a  consul  such  as  does  not  hesitate  to  obey  your  decrees. 

a.  These  Relative  Clauses  of  Result  are  closely  related  to  the  Clause  of 
Characteristic,  and  sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  the  two  con- 
structions. It  is  best  to  class  the  relative  clause  as  one  of  Characteristic, 
unless  the  result  idea  is  clear  and  unmistakable. 

3.  Result  clauses  may  also  be  introduced  by  quin  =  ut  non ;  as, — 

nihil  tam  difficile  est  quin  quaerendo  investigari  possit,  nothing 

is  so  difficult  that  it  can7wt  be  discovered  by  searchitig; 
nemo  est  tam  fortis  quin  rei  novitate  perturbetur,  no  one  is  so 

steadfast  as   not  to   be   thrown   into  confusion    by  a   strange 
occurrence. 

4.  Note  the  use  of  quam  ut   (sometimes  quam  alone)  to  denote  Result 
after  comparatives ;  as,  — 

urbs  erat  mtinitior  quam  ut  primo  impetii  capi  posset,  the  city  was  too 
strongly  fortified  to  be  taken  at  the  first  attack  (lit.  viore  strongly  fortified 
than  \so'\  that  it  could  be  taken,  etc.). 


\ 


CAUSAL   CLAUSES.  1 85 

Causal  Clauses. 

285.  Causal  clauses  are  introduced  chiefly  by  the  fol- 
lowing particles :  — 

1.  Quod,  quia,  quoniam. 

2.  Cum. 

3.  Quando. 

286.  The  use  of  moods  is  as  follows  :  — 

I.  Quod,  quia,  quoniam  take  the  Indicative  when  the 
reason  is  that  of  the  winter  or  speaker ;  they  take  the  Sub- 
junctive when  the  reason  is  viewed  as  that  of  a7tother. 
Thus  :  — 

Parthos  timeo  quod  diffido  copiis  nostris,  I  fear  the  Parthians^ 

because  I  distrust  our  troops. 
Themistocles,  quia  non  tutus  erat,  Coroyram  demigravit,  73^^- 

mistocles^  since  he  was  not  safe.,  moved  to  Corcyra. 
neque  me  vixisse  paenitet,  quoniam  bene  vixi,  /  do  not  regret 

having  lived.,  since  I  have  lived  well. 
Socrates  accusatus  est  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates 

was  arraigned  on  the  ground  that  he  was  corrupting  the  young. 

(Here  the  reason  is  not  that  of  the  writer  but  of  the  accuser. 

Hence  the  Subjunctive.) 
Haedui  Caesari  gratias  egerunt  quod  se  periculS  liberavisset, 

the  Haedui  thanked  Caesar  because  he  had  delivered  thein  from 

danger.     (The  reason  of  the  Haedui.) 
quoniam  Miltiades   dicere  non  posset,  verba  pro  eo  fecit  Ti- 

sagoras,  since  Miltiades  could  not  speak,  Tisagoras  spoke  for 

him.     (The  reason  of  Tisagoras.) 
noctu  ambulabat  Themistocles,  quod  somnum  capere  non  pos- 
set, Thetnistocles  used  to  walk  at  night  because  {as  he  said)  he 

couldfi't  sleep. 

a.  Verbs  oi  thinking  2ind  saying  often  stand  in  the  Subjunctive 
in  causal  clauses  as  though  the  act  of  thinking  or  saying, 
and  not  the  contents  of  the  thought  or  language,  constituted 
the  reason.     Thus  :  — 

Bellovaci  suum  numerum  non  complgverunt  quod  se 
suo  nomine  cum  Romanis  bellum  gestures  dice- 
rent,   the  Bellovaci  did  not  furnish  their  complement, 


1 86  SYNTAX. 


because  they  said  they  were  going  to  wage  war  with  the 
Romans  on  their  own  account. 

b.   Non  quod,  non  quo  (by  attraction  for  non  eo  quod),  non 
quia,  not  that.,  not  because ;  and  non  quod  non,  non  quo 
non,  non  quin,  not  that  .   .  .  not;  not  because  .   .   .  not; 
not  but  that,  are  usually  employed   merely  to  introduce  a 
hypothetical  reason,  and  hence  take  the  Subjunctive ;  as,  — 
id   feci,  non  quod   vos   hanc  defensionem  desiderare 
arbitrarer,  sed  ut  omnes  intellegerent,  this  I  did, 
not  because  I  thought  you  needed  this  defense,  but  that  all 
might  perceive ; 
Crasso  commendationem  non  sum  pollicitus,  non  quin 
earn  valituram  apud  te  arbitrarer,  sed  egere  mihi 
commendatione  non  videbatur,  /  did  not  promise  a 
recommendation  to  Crassus,  not  that  I  did  not  think  it 
woidd  have  weight  with  you,  but  because  ?ie  did  not  seem 
to  7ne  to  need  reco7nmendation. 
.    c.  But   clauses  introduced  by  non   quod,  non  quia  take  the 
Indicative  if  they  state  a  fact,  even  though  that  fact  is  denied 
to  be  the  reason  for  something ;  as,  — 

hoc  ita  sentio,  non  quia  sum  ipse  augur,  sed  quia  sic 
existimare  nos  est  necesse,  this  I  think,  not  because  1 
am  jnyself  an  augur  {which  I  really  am^,  but  because  it 
is  necessary  for  us  to  think  so. 

2.  Cum  causal  regularly  takes  the  Subjunctive;  as,  — 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so  ; 

cum  SIS  mortalis,  quae  mortalia  sunt,  cura,  since  you  are  mortal, 
care  for  what  is  inortal. 

a.   Note    the   phrase   cum    praesertim    (praesertim    cum), 
especially  since;  as, — 

Haeduos  accusat,  praesertim  cum  eorum  precibus  ad- 
ductus  bellum  susceperit,  he  blamed  the  Haedui, 
especially  since  he  had  undertaken  the  war  at  their 
entreaties. 

3.  Quando  (less  frequent  than  the  other  causal  particles)  governs 
the  Indicative ;  as,  — 

id  omitto,  quando  vobis  ita  placet,  /  pass  over  that,  since  you  so 
wish. 


CLAUSES  WITH  POSTQUAM,   UBI,  ETC.  1 87 


Temporal  Clauses  introduced  by  Postquam,   Ut,   Ubi, 
Simul  ac,  etc. 

287.  I.  Postquam  (posteaquam),  after ;  ut,  ubi,  when; 
cum  primum,  simul,  simul  ac  (simul  atque),  as  soon  as,  when 
used  to  refer  to  a  single  past  act  regularly  take  the  Perfect 
Indicative ;  as,  — 

Epaminondas  postquam  audivit  vicisse  Boeotios,  *  Satis'  inquit 
*  vixi,'  hpaminondas,  after  he  heard  that  the  Boeotians  had  con- 
quered., said.,  '  /  have  lived  enough ; ' 

id  ut  audivit,  Corcyram  deiniQTa.-vit,  when  he  heard  this,  he  moved  to 
Corey r a ; 

Caesar  cum  primumi  potuit,  ad  exercitum  contendit,  Caesar,  as 
soon  as  he  could,  hurried  to  the  army  ; 

ubi  de  Caesaris  adventu  certiores  fact!  sunt,  legates  ad  eum 
mittunt,  2uhen  they  were  i?tfor?ned  of  Caesar''s  arrival,  they 
sent  envoys  to  him. 

a.  The  Historical  Present  may  take  the  place  of  the  Perfect  in  this  con- 
struction. 

2.  To  denote  the  repeated  occurrence  of  an  act,  ut,  ubi,  simul 
atque,  as  often  as,  when  following  an  historical  tense,  take  the  Plu- 
perfect Indicative  (compare  §§  288,  3  ;  302,  3)  ;  as, — 

ut  quisque  Verris  animum  offenderat,  in  lautumias  statim  coni- 
ciebatur,  whenever  anybody  had  offended  Verres'^s  feelings,  he 
was  forthwith  put  in  the  stone-quarry, 

hostes,    ubi    aliquos    egredientes    conspexerant,   adoriebantur, 

whenever    the    enemy  had   seen   any  men   disembarking,  they 
attacked  them. 

a.  In  Livy  and  succeeding  historians  the  Imperfect-  and  Pluperfect  Sub- 
junctive are  used  to  denote  this  repeated  occurrence  of  an  act  ('  Indefi- 
nite Frequency ') ;  as,  — 

id  ubi  dixisset  hastam  mittebat,  whenever  he  had  said  that,  he 
hurled  a  spear. 

3.  Occasionally  the  above  conjunctions  are  followed  by  the  Pluper- 
fect Indicative  of  a  single  occurrence.  This  is  regularly  the  case  with 
postquam  in  expressions  denoting  a  definite  interval  of  time  (days, 
months,  years,  etc.^,  such  as  post  tertium  annum  quam,  triennid 
postquam.     Thus :  — 


1 88  SYNTAX. 


quinque  post  diebus  quam  Luca  discesserat,  ad  Sardinian!  vSnit, 

five  days  after  he  had  departed  from  Liica  he  came  to  Sar- 
dinia ; 
postquam    occupatae    SyrScusae    erant,  profectus  e^t  Cartha- 
ginem,  after  Syracuse  had  been  seized,  he  set  otit  for  Carthage. 

4.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  also  sometimes  occurs,  to  denote  a  continued 
state  ;  as,  — 

postquam  Romam  adventabant,  senatus  consultus  est,  after  they  were 

on  the  march  toward  Route,  the  Senate  was  consulted ; 
postquam  struct!  utrimque  stabant,  after  they  had  been  drawn  up  on  both 

sides  and  were  in  position. 

5.  Rarely  postquam,  posteaquam,  following  the  analogy  of  cum,  take 
the  Subjunctive,  but  only  in  the  historical  tenses;  as,  — 

posteaquam  sumptuosa  fieri  funera  coepissent,  leg-e  sublata  sunt, 

after  funerals  had  begun  to  be  elaborate,  they  were  done  away  with  by  law. 

Temporal  Clauses  introduced  by  Cum. 

A.    Cum   REFERRING  TO  THE   PAST. 

288.    I.    Cum,  when  referring  to  the  past,  takes, — 

A.  The  Indicative  (Imperfect,  Historical  Perfect,  or 
Pluperfect)  to  denote  the  point  of  time  at  which  something 
occurs. 

B.  The  Subjunctive  (Imperfect  or  Pluperfect)  to  de- 
note the  situation  or  circumstances  under  which  something 
occurs. 

Examples :  — 

Indicative. 
an  tum  6ras  consul,  cum  in  Palatio  mea  domus  ardebat,  or  were 

you  consul  at  the  time  wlien  my  house  burned  up  on  the  Palatine  ? 
credo  tum  cum  Sicilia  florebat  opibus  et  copiis  magna  artificia 

fuisse  in  e5  insula,  /  believe  that  at  the  time  when  Sicily  was 

powerful  in  riches  and  resources  there  were  great  crafts  in  that 

island ; 
eo  tempore  paruit  cum  pSrere  necesse  erat,  he  obeved  at  the  time 

when  it  was  necessary  to  obey  ; 
illo  die,  cum  est  lata  Igx  de  me,  on  that  day  when  the  law  concern- 

ifig  7ne  was  passed 


CUM-CLAUSES.  1 89 


Subjunctive. 
Lysander  cum  vellet  Lycurgi  leges  commutare,  prohibitus  est, 

'whe7i  Lysander  desired  to  change  the  laws  of  Lycurgus^  he  was 

prevented', 
Pythagoras  cum  in  geometria  quiddam  novi  invenisset,  Musis 

bovem  immolasse  dicitur,  when  Pythagoras  had  discovered 

so?nething  new  in  geometry,  he  is  said  to  have  sacrificed  an  ox  to 

the  Muses. 

a.  Note  that  the  Indicative  is  much  less  frequent  in  such  clauses 
than  the  Subjunctive,  and  is  regularly  confined  to  those  cases 
where  the  main  clause  has  tum,  eo  die,  eo  anno,  eo  tem- 
pore or  some  similar  correlative  of  the  cum.  Sometimes  it 
depends  entirely  upon  the  point  of  view  of  the  writer  whether 
he  shall  employ  the  Indicative  or  Subjunctive. 

2.  Cum  Inversum.  When  the  logical  order  of  the  clauses  is 
inverted,  we  find  cum  with  the  Perfect  Indicative  or  Historical  Present, 
in  the  sense  of  when,  whe?t  suddenly.  The  main  clause  in  such  cases 
often  has  jam,  vix,  aegre,  nondum  ;  as, — 

jam  Galli  ex  oppido  fugere  apparabant,  cum  matres  familiae 
repiente  procurrer.unt,  the  Gauls  were  already  preparing  to 
flee,  when  suddenly  the  7natrons  rushed  forth  (logically,  the  7na' 
trons  rushed  forth  as  the  Gauls  were  preparing  to  flee^  ; 

TrSviri  Labienum  adoriri  parabant,  cum  duas  legiones  venisse 
cognoscunt,  the  Treviri  were  preparing  to  attack,  when  {sud- 
de7tly^  they  tear  tied  that  two  legio7is  had  arrived. 

3.  To  denote  a  recu7'ri7ig  action  in  the  past,  cum  is  followed  by  the  In- 
dicative, particularly  of  the  Pluperfect  (compare  §§  287,  2  ;  302,  3)  ;  as,  — 
cum  ad  aliquod  oppidum  venerat,  eadem  lectlca  ad  cubiculum' 


{always^  carried  i)i  the  sa77ie  litter  to  his  roo7n  ; 
cum  equitatus  noster  se  in  agros  ejecerat,  essedarios  ex  silvis 
emittebat,  whenever  our  cavalry  had  advanced  i7tto  the  fields, 
he  would  se7td  his  charioteers  out  fr 0771  the  woods. 

a.  Sometimes  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  is  thus  used;  as, — 
saepe  cum  aliquem  videret  minus  bene  vestitum,  suum 

amiculum  de'dit,  often,  whenever  he  saw  some  one  more  poorly 

clothed,  he  gave  him  his  own  mantle ;. 
cum  procucurrissent,  Numidae  effugiebant,  as  often  as  they 

had  advanced,  the  Numidians  ran  away. 
This  construction  is  frequent  in  Liv}'^  and  subsequent  historians. 


igo  SYNTAX. 


B.   Cum  REFERRING  TO  THE  PRESENT  OR  FUTURE. 

289.  When  cum  refers  to  the  Present  or  Future  it  regu- 
larly takes  the  Indicative;  as,  — 

tum  tua  res  agitur,  paries  cum  proximus  ardet,  your  own  interests 

are  at  stake  when  your  neighbor'' s  house  is  burning; 
cumi  videbis,  tum  scies,  when  you  see,  then  you  will  know. 

a.  The  Indicative  of  the  Present  or  Future  may  denote  also  a  recurring 
action  ;  as, — 
stabilitas  amicitiae  confirmari  potest,  cum  homines  cu- 

pidinibus    imperabunt,  firjn  friejidship    can    be  established 

whenever  men  shall  control  their  desires. 

C.  Other  Uses  of  Cum. 

290.  I.    Cum  Explicative.     Cum,  with  the  Indicative,  is  some- 
times used  to  indicate  the  identity  of  one  act  with  another ;  as,  — 
cum   tacent  clamant,  their  silence  is  a  shout   (lit.   whe7i  they  are 

sile7it^  they  shout) . 

2.    Cum  .  .  .  tum.     When  cum  .  .  .  tum  mean  both  .  .  .  and, 
the  cum-clause  is  in  the  Indicative ;  but  when  cum  has  the  force  of 
while,  though,  it  may  take  the  Subjunctive ;  as, — 
cum  te  semper  dilexerim,  tum  tuis  factis  incensus  sum,  while  I 

have  always  loved  you,  at  the  sa^ne  time  I  am  stirred  by  your 

conduct. 

Clauses  introduced  by  Antequam  and  Priusquam. 

A.  With  the  Indicative. 

291.  Antequam  and  priusquam  (often  written  ante  .  .  . 
quam,  prius  .  .  .  quam)  take  the  Indicative  to  denote  an 
actual  fact. 

1 .  Sometimes  the  Present  or  Future  Perfect ;  as,  — 
prius  respondes  quam  rogo,  you  answer  before  I  ask ; 

nihil  contra  disputabo  priusquam  dixerit,  /  will  say  nothing  ir. 
opposition,  before  he  speaks. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Perfect,  especially  after  negative  clauses  ;  as,  — 
non  prius  jugulandi  finis  fuit,  quam  Sulla  omnes  sues  divitiis 

explevit,  there  was  no  end  of  murder  until  Sulla  satisfied  all 
his  henchmen  with  wealth. 


CLAUSES  WITH  DUM,   DONEC,  ETC.  I9I 

B.  With  the  Subjunctive. 

292.  Antequam  and  priusquam  take  the  Subjunctive  to 
denote  an  act  as  anticipated. 

1.  Thus  the  Subjunctive  may  denote  — 

a)  An  act  in  preparation  for  which  the  main  act  takes  place  ;  as, — 
priusquam  dimicarent,  foedus  ictum  est,  i.e.  in  anticipa- 

tioii  of  the  fight,  a  treaty  was  st7'jick. 

By  an  extension  of  this  usage,  the  Subjunctive  is  sometimes  used  oi  general 
truths,  where  the  anticipatory  notion  has  faded  out;  as, — 
tempestas  minatur  antequam  surgat,  the  tempest  threatens  before  it  rises. 

b)  An  act  anticipated  and  forestalled  ;  as,  — 

priusquam  telum  adici  posset,  omnis  acies  terga  vertit, 
before  a  spear  could  be  hurled^  the  whole  army  fled. 

c)  An  act  anticipated  and  deprecated  ;  as,  — 

animum  omittunt    priusquam.   loco   demigrent,  they  die 
rather  than  quit  their  post. 

2.  After  historical  tenses  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  used,  espe- 
cially by  some  writers,  where  the  notion  of  anticipation  has  practically 
vanished;  as, — 

sol  antequam  se  abderet  fugientem  vidit  Antonium,  the  sun  before 
it  set  saw  Antony  fleeing. 

Clauses  introduced  by  Dum,  Donee,  Quoad. 

293.  I.  Dum,  w/ti/e,  regularly  takes  the  Indicative  of 
the  Historical  Present;  as, — 

Alexander,  dum  inter  primores  pugnat,  sagitta  ictus  est,  Alex- 
ander, while  he  was  fighting  in  the  van,  was  struck  by  an  arrow  ; 

dum  haec  geruntur,  in  fines  Venellorum  pervenit,  while  these 
things  were  being  done,  he  arrived  in  the  territory  of  the  Venelli. 

II.  Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  as  long  as,  take  the  Indica- 
tive ;  as,  — 

dum  anima  est,  spes  est,  as  long  as  there  is  life,  there  is  hope  ; 
Iiacedaemoniorum  gens  fortis  fuit,  dum  Lycurgi  leges  vigebant, 

the  race  of  the  Lacedaemonians  was  powerful,  as  long  as  the 
laws  of  Lycurgus  were  in  force ; 
Cato,  quoad  vixit,  virtutum  laude  crevit,  Cato,  as  long  as  he  lived, 
increased  in  the  fame  of  his  virtues. 


192  SYNTAX. 


III.    Dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  until,  take  :  — 

1.  The  Indicative,  to  denote  an  actual  event ;  as,  — 
donee  rediit,  fuit  silentium,  there  was  silence  till  he  came ; 
ferrum  in    corpore    retinuit,    quoad    renuntiatum    est  Boeotios 

vicisse,  he  kept  the  iron  in  his  body  until  word  was  brought  that 
the  Boeotians  had  conquered. 

a.   In  Livy  and  subsequent  historians  dura  and  donee  in  this  sense  often 
take  the  Subjunctive  instead  of  the  Indicative;  as,  — 
trepidationis  aliquantum   edebant  donee  timer  quietem 
fecisset,  they  showed  some  trepidation,  until  fear  produced  quiet. 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  to  denote  anticipation  or  expec- 
tancy;  as, — 

exspeetavit  Caesar  dum  n^vSs  eonvenirent,  Caesar  waited  for  the 

ships  to  asse?nble ; 
dum  litterae  veniant,  morabor,  /  sha/l  wait  for  the  letter  to  come. 

Substantive  Clauses. 

294.  A  Substantive  Clause  is  one  which  as  a  whole 
serves  as  the  Subject  or  Object  of  a  verb,  or  stands  in  some 
other  case  relation. 

A.    Substantive  Clauses  developed  from  the  Volitive. 

295.  Substantive  Clauses  Developed  from  the  Volitive 
are  used  with  the  following  classes  of  verbs  :  — 

I.    With  verbs  signifying  to  ad7no7tish^  request.,  command,  7irge,  per- 
suade, induce,'^  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  or  ut  ne)  ;  as,  — 
postulo  ut  flat,  /  demand  that  it  be  done  (dependent  form  of  the 

Jussive  fiat,  let  it  be  done  !)  ; 
orat,  ne  abeas,  he  begs  that  you  will  not  go  away ; 

milites  eohortatus  est  ut   hostium  impetum  sustinerent,  he  ex- 
horted his  soldiers  to  withstand  the  attack  of  the  enejny ; 
Helvetiis  persuasit  ut  exirent,  he  persuaded  the  Helvetii  to  march 
forth, 
a.   Jubeo,  command,  order,  regularly  takes  the  Infinitive. 

1  Especially:  moneo,  admoneo;  rog"6,  oro,  pete,  postulo,  precor, 
flag-ito :  mando,  impero,  praecipio;  suadeo,  hortor,  eohortor;  per- 
suadeo,  impello. 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES.  I93 

2.  With  verbs  signifying  to  grant,  concede,  per tnit,  allow^  etc.  (con- 
junction ut)  ;  as,  — 

huic  concedo  ut  ea  praetereat,  /  allow  hi?n  to  pass  that  by  (depend- 
ent form  of  the  Jussive  ea  praetereat,  let  him  pass  that  by !)  ; 

consul!  permissum  est  ut  duas  legioues  scriberet,  the  constil  was 
permitted  to  enroll  two  legions. 

3.  With   verbs   of  hindering,  preventing,"^  etc.    (conjunctions   ne, 
quominus,  quin)  ;  as,  — 

n§  lustrum  perficeret,  mors  prohibuit,  death  prevented  him  from 
finishing  the  lustrzim  (dependent  form  after  past  tense  of  ne 
lustrum  perficiat,  let  him  not  finish,  etc.')  ; 

prohibuit  quominus  in  unum  coirent,  he  prevented  them  from  com- 
ing together ; 

nee  quin  erumperet,  prohiberl  poterat,  nor  could  he  be  prevented 
from  rushing  forth. 

a.  Quin  is  used  only  when  the  verb  of  hindering  is  accompanied  by  a 
negative,  or  stands  in  a  question  implying  a  negative ;  it  is  not  neces- 
sarily used  even  then. 

4.  With  verbs  of  deciding,  resolving,^  etc.  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  or 
ut  ne)  ;  as,  — 

constitueram  ut  pridie  Idus  Aquini  manerem,  /  had  decided  to 

reinain  at  Aquinum  on  the  12th ; 
decrevit  senatus  ut  Opimius  videret,  the  Senate  decreed  that  Opi- 

itiius  should  see  to  it ; 
convenit  ut  unis  castris  miscerentur,  it  was  agreed  that  they  should 

be  united  in  one  camp. 

5 .  With  verbs  oi striving,^  etc,  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  or  ut  ne)  ;  as,  — 
fac  ut  eum  exores,  see  to  it  that  you  prevail  upon  hiinl 

cura  ut  vir  sis,  see  to  it  that  you  are  a  man ! 

laborabat  ut  reliquas  civitates  adjungeret,  he  was  striving  to  join 
the  refnaining  states  to  him. 

a.   Conor,  try,  always  takes  the  Infinitive. 
Note.  —  Verbs  of  all  the  above  classes  also  admit  the  Infinitive,  especially  in 
poetry. 

1  Especially :  permitto,  concedo,  non  patior. 

2  Especially:  prohibeo,  impedio,  deterreo. 

8  Especially :  constituo,  decerno,  censeo,  placuit,  convenit,  paciscor. 
4  Especially:  laboro,  do  operam,  id  ago,  contend©,  impetro. 


194  SYNTAX. 


6.  With  a  few  other  expressions,  such  as  necesse  est,  reliquum 
est,  sequitur,  licet,  oportet ;  as,  — 

sequitur  ut  doceam,  it  remains  for  7ne  to  show ; 
licet  redeas,  you  may  rettirti ; 
oportet  loquamur,  we  must  speak. 
On  the  absence  of  ut  with  licet  and  oportet,  see  paragraph  8. 

7.  Here  also  belong  phrases  of  the  type:  nulla  causa  est  cur, 
quin ;  non  est  cur,  etc. ;  nihil  est  cur,  etc. ;  as,  — 

nulla  causa  est  cur  timeam,  there  is  710  reason  why  I  should  fear 
(originally  Deliberative  :  why  should  I  fear  ?    lhere''s  7io  reason)  ; 
nihil  est  quin  dicam,  there  is  no  reason  why  I  shoidd  not  say. 

8.  Many  o^  the  above  classes  of  verbs  at  times  take  the  simple  Sub- 
junctive without  ut.  In  such  cases  we  must  not  recognize  any  omis- 
sion of  ut,  but  simply  an  earlier  form  of  expression  which  existed 
before  the  ut-clause  arose.  This  is  regularly  the  case  with  necesse 
est,  licet,  and  oportet ;  see  6.     Other  examples  are  :  — 

eos  moneo  desinant,  /  warn  the7fi  to  stop ; 

huic  imperat  adeat  civitates,  he  orders  hi77i  to  visit  the  states. 

B.     Substantive  Clauses  developed  from  the  Optative. 
296.  Substantive  Clauses  Developed  from  the  Optative 
occur: — 

1 .  With  verbs  of  wishi7tg^  desiring,  especially  cupio,  opto,  volo, 
maid  (conjunctions  ut,  ne,  ut  ne)  ;  as, — 

opto  ut  in  hoc  judicio  nemo  improbus  reperiatur,  /  hope  that  in 
this  court  no  bad  ma7i  7nay  be  fotmd  (here  ut  reperiatur  repre- 
sents a  simple  optative  of  direct  statement,  viz.  reperiatur,  7nay 
no  bad  77ia7i  be  fotmd!)  ; 

cupio  ne  veniat,  /  desire  that  he  77iay  not  co7ne. 

a.  The  simple  Subjunctive  (without  ut)  sometimes  occurs  with  verbs  of 
this  class,  (See  \  295,  8.)  Examples  are;  velim  scribas,  /  wish 
you  would  write  :  vellem  scripsisset,  /  wish  he  had  written. 

2.  With  expressions  of  feari7ig  (timeo,  metuo,  vereor,  etc.). 
Here  ne  means  that,  lest.,  and  ut  means  that  7iot ;  as,  — 

timeo  ne  veniat,  I  fear  that  he  will  co7jte  (originally:   77iay  he  not 

co77te !  r7n  afraid  [he  wiW] )  ; 
timed  ut   veniat,  I  fear  that  he  will  not  come  (originally;  may  he 

camel  J'' 771  afraid  [he  won'f]). 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES.  195 

a.  Ne  non  sometimes  occurs  instead  of  ut,  especially  where  the  verb  of 
fearing  has  a  negative,  or  where  the  writer  desires  to  emphasize  some 
particular  word  in  the  dependent  clause  ;  as, — 
non  vereor  ne  hoc  non  fiat,  /  am  not  afraid  that  this  will  not 

happen  ; 
vereor  ne  exercitum  firmum  habere  non  possit,  I  fear  that 

he  is  unable  (non  possit)  to  have  a  strong  army. 

C.     Substantive  Clauses  of  Result. 

297.  Substantive  Clauses  of  Result  (introduced  by  ut, 
ut  non)  are  a  development  of  pure  Result  clauses,  and 
occur  with  the  following  classes  of  words :  — 

1 .  As  object  clauses  after  verbs  of  doing,  accomplishing  (especially 
faci5,  efBcio,  conficio).     Thus  :  — 

gravitas  morbi  facit  ut  medicina  egeamus,  the  severity  of  disease 
makes  us  need  medicine. 

2.  As  the  subject  of  several  impersonal  verbs,  particularly  fit,  efiBci- 
tur,  acoidit,  evenit,  contingit,  accedit,  fieri  potest,  fore,  sequi- 
tur,  relinquitur.     Thus  :  — 

ex  quo  efiBcitur,  ut  voluptas  non  sit  summum  bonum,/r^^  which 
it  follows  that  pleasure  is  not  the  greatest  good ; 

ita  fit,  ut  nemo  esse  possit  beatus,  thus  it  happens  that  no  one  can 
be  happy ; 

accedebat  ut  naves  deessent,  another  thing  was  the  lack  of  ships 
(lit.  it  was  added  that  ships  were  lacking^ . 

3.  As  predicate  or  appositive  after  expressions  like  jiis  est,  mos 
est,  consuetiido  est;  also  after  neuter  pronouns,  hoc,  illud,  etc. 
Thus :  — 

est  mos  hominum  ut  nolint  eundem  pluribus  rebus  excellere, 

//  is  the  way  of  men  not  to  wish  the  same  person  to  excel  in 
many  things. 

D.     Substantive  Clauses  introduced  by  Quin. 

298.  Substantive  Clauses  introduced  by  quin  (used  some- 
times as  subject,  sometimes  as  object)  occur  after  negative 
and  interrogative  expressions  of  doubt,  omission,  and  the 
like,  particularly  after   non    dubito,  /  do  not   doubt ;  quia 


196  SYNTAX. 


dubitat,   who  doubts  f ;  non  (baud)  dubium  est,   there  is  no 
doubt.     The  mood  is  the  Subjunctive.     Examples  :  — 

quis  dubitat  quin  in  virtute  divitiae  sint,  who  doubts  that  in  virtue 
there  are  riches  f 

non  dubium  erat  quin  venturus  esset,  there  was  no  doubt  that  he 
was  about  to  come. 

a.  In   Nepos,  Liyy,  and  post-Augustan  writers   an   Infinitive  sometimes 
takes  the  place  of  the  quin-clause  after  non  dubito ;  as, — 

n6n  dubitamus  inventos  esse,  we  do  not  doubt  that  men  were  found. 

b.  Non  dubito,  /  do  not  hesitate,  is  regularly  followed  by  the  Infinitive, 
though  sometimes  by  a  qmn-clause. 

E.    Substantive  Clauses  Introduced  by  Quod. 
299.    I.    Quod,  the  fact   tJiat^  that,  introduces   Substan- 
tive Clauses  in  the  Indicative.     This  construction  occurs 
especially  — 

d)  In  apposition  with  a  preceding   demonstrative,  as  hoc,  id, 
illud,  ilia,  ex  eo,  inde,  etc.     Thus  :  — 
illud  est  admiratione  dignum,  quod  captivos  retinen- 
dos  censuit,  this  is  especially  worthy  of  adfniration, 
that  he  thought  the  prisoners  ought  to  be  kept ; 
hoc  uno  praestamus  vel  maxime  feris,  quod  coUoqui- 
mur  inter   nos,  in  this  one  respect  we  are  especially 
superior  to  the  beasts.,  that  we  talk  with  each  other. 

b)  After  bene  fit,  bene  accidit,  male  fit,  bene  facere,  miror, 
etc. ;  as,  — 
bene  mihi  evenit,  quod  mittor  ad   mortem,  //  is  well 

for  me  that  I  am  se7it  to  death  ; 
bene  fecisti  quod  mansisti,  you  did  well  in  remaining. 

2.    Quod  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence  sometimes  has  the  force 

of  as  regards  the  fact  that.     Thus  :  — 

quod  multitudinem  Germanorum  in  Galliam  traduco,  id  mei 
miiniendi  causa  facio,  as  regards  the  fact  that  I  a7n  trans- 
porting a  multitude  of  Gertnans  into  Gaul.,  I  am  doing  it  for 
the  sake  of  strengtheni7ig  7nyself; 

quod  mS  Agamemncna  aemulan  putas,  falleris,  as  regards  your 
thinking  that  I  e7tiulate  Agamemnon,  you  are  7nistaken. 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES.  197 

F.   Indirect  Questions. 
300.    I.    Indirect  Questions  are  Substantive  Clauses  used 
after  verbs  of  asking,  inquiring,  telling,  and  the  like.     They 
take  their  verb  in  the  Subjunctive.^     Like  Direct  Questions 
(see  §  162)  they  may  be  introduced  — 

d)  By  Interrogative  Pronouns  or  Adverbs  ;  as,  — 

die  mihi  ubi  fueris,  quid  feceris,  tell  me  where  you  were, 

what  you  did', 
oculis  judicari  non  potest  in  utram  partem  fluat  Arar, 
//  cannot  be  determined  by  the  eye  in  which  direction  the 
Arar  flows ; 
bis  bina  quot  essent,  nesciebat,  he  did  not  know  how 
7nany  two  times  two  were. 
Note.  —  Care  should   be  taken   to  distinguish  Indirect   Questions 
from  Relative  Clauses.     The  difference  between  the  two  appears  clearly 
in  the  following :  — 
effugere  nemo  id  potest  quod  futiirum  est,  no  one  can  escape  what 

is  destined  to  come  to  pass ;  but 
saepe  autem  ne  utile  quidem  est  scire  quid  futurum  sit,  but  often 
it  is  not  even  useful  to  know  what  is  coming  to  pass, 
b)  By  num  or  -ne,  without  distinction  of  meaning  ;  as,  — 

Epaminondas   quaesivit   num  salvus  esset  clipeus,  or 
salvusne  esset  clipeus,  Epaminondas  asked  whether 
his  shield  was  safe  ; 
disputatur  num  interire  virtus  in  homine  possit,  the 

question  is  raised  whether  virtue  can  die  in  a  man ; 
ex  Socrate  quaesitum  est  nonne  Archelaum  beatum 
putaret,  the  qtcestio7i  was  asked  of  Socrates  whether  he 
did  not  think  Archelaus  happy. 

Note.  —  Nonne  in  Indirect  Questions  occurs  only  after  quaero,  as  in  the  last 
example  above. 

2.  Often  the  Indirect  Question  represents  a  Deliberative  Subjunctive 
of  the  direct  discourse  ;  as,  — 

nescio  quid  faciam,  /  do  ?tot  know  what  to  do.    (Direct :  quid  faciam, 
what  shall  I  do !) 

1  Exclamations,  also,  upon  becoming  indirect,  take  the  Subjunctive,  as  c6n- 
sidera  quam  variae  slnt  hominum  cupidines,  consider  how  varied  are  the 
desires  of  men.    (Direct:  quam  variae  sunt  hominum  cupidines!) 


198  SYNTAX. 


3.  After  verbs  of  expectation  and  endeavor  (exspecto,  conor, 
experior,  tempto)  we  sometimes  find  an  Indirect  Question  intro- 
duced by  SI ;  as,  — 

conantur  si  perrumpere  possint,  they  try  whether  they  can  break 
through. 

a.   Sometimes  the  governing  verb  is  omitted;  as, — 

permit  ad  proxiraani  speluncam  si  forte  eo  vestigia  fer- 
rent,  he  proceeded  to  the  nearest  cave  {to  see)  if  the  tracks  led 
thither. 

4.  Indirect  Double  Questions  are  introduced  in  the  main  by  the 
same  particles  as  direct  double  questions  (§  162,  4)  ;  viz. :  — 

utrum  ...  an; 

-ne an; 

....  an; 


....  ne. 

Examples :  — 


>  /ask  whether  it  is  true  or  false  f 


quaero  utrum  verum  an  falsum  sit, 
quaero  verumne  an  falsum  sit, 
quaero  verum  an  falsum  sit, 
quaero  verum  falsumne  sit, 

a.  '  Or  not '  in  the  second  member  of  the  double  question  is  ordinarily 
expressed  by  necne,  less  frequently  by  an  non ;  as,  — 
di  utrum  sint  necne,  quaeritur,  it  is  asked  whether  there  are  gods 
or  not. 

5.  Hand  scio  an,  nescio  an,  by  omission  of  the  first  member  of 
the  double  question,  occur  with  the  Subjunctive  in  the  sense  :  /  am 
inclined  to  think,  probably,  perhaps ;  as,  — 

haud  scio  an  ita  sit,  /  am  inclined  to  think  this  is  so. 

6.  In  early  Latin  and  in  poetry  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  in 
Indirect  Questions. 

CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 

301.  Conditional  Sentences  are  compound  sentences 
(§  164)  consisting  of  two  parts,  the  Protasis  (or  con- 
dition), usually  introduced  by  si,  nisi,  or  sin,  and  the 
Apodosis  (or  conclusion^  There  are  the  following  types 
of  Conditional  Sentences  :  — 


J 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES.  I99 

First  Type.  —  Nothing  Implied  as  to    the  Reality   of  the   Sup- 
posed Case. 

302.  I.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Indicative  in  both 
Protasis  and  Apodosis.     Any  tense  may  be  used  ;  as,  — 

SI  hoc  credis,  erras,  if  you  believe  this,  you  are  7nistaken  ; 

naturam  si  sequemur,  numquam  aberrabimus,  if  ive  follow  Nature, 

we  shall  never  go  astray ; 
SI  hoc  dixisti,  erras  ti,  if  you  said  this,  you  were  in  error. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Protasis  takes  the  Indefinite  Second  Person  Singu- 
lar (§  356,  3)  of  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive,  with  the  force  of 
the  Indicative;  as, — 

memoria  minuitur,  nisi  earn  exerceas,  memory  is  impaired  unless 
you  exercise  it. 

3.  Here  belong  also  those  conditional  sentences  in  which  the  Prot- 
asis denotes  a  repeated  action  (compare  §§  287,  2 ;  288,  3)  ;  as,  — 

si  quis  equitum  deciderat,  pedites  circumsistebant,  if  any  one 

of  the  horsemen  fell,  the  foot-soldiers  gathered  about  him. 

a.  Instead  of  the  Indicative,  Livy  and  subsequent  writers  employ  the 
Subjunctive  of  the  Historical  tenses  in  the  Protasis  to  denote  repeated 
action ;  as,  — 

si  dicendo  quis  diem  eximeret,  if  {ever)  anybody  consumed  a  day 
in  pleading  ;  si  quando  adslderet,  if  ever  he  sat  by. 

4.  Where  the  sense  demands  it,  the  Apodosis  in  conditional  sen- 
tences of  the  First  Type  may  be  an  Imperative  or  one  of  the  Inde- 
pendent Subjunctives  (Hortatory,  DeHberative,  etc.)',  as, — 

si  hoc  creditis,  tacete,  if  you  believe  this,  be  silent ; 

si  hoc  credimus,  taceamus,  tfwe  believe  this,  let  us  keep  silent. 

Second  Type.  —  'Shoiild'-' Would'  Conditions. 

303.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Subjunctive  (of  the  Pres- 
ent or  Perfect  tense)  in  both  Protasis  and  Apodosis;  as, — 

si  hoc  dicas,  erres,  ]^  if  you  should  say  this,  you  would  be  mis- 

si  hoc  dixeris,  erraveris,  /         taken. 

si  velim  Hannibalis  proelia  omnia  describere,  dies  me  deficiat, 

if  I  shojild  wish  to  describe  all  the  battles  of  Hannibal,  time 
would  fail  fne ; 


200  SYNTAX. 


mentiar,  si  negem,  /  should  lie,  if  I  should  deny  it ; 

haec  SI  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nouue  impetrare  debeat,  if  your 

country  sJwuld  plead'  thus  with  you,  would  she  not  deserve  to 

obtain  her  request  ? 

a.  The  Subjunctive  in  the  Apodosis  of  conditional  sentences  of  this  type 
is  of  the  Potential  variety. 

b.  Sometimes  we  find  the  Indicative  in  the  Apodosis  of  sentences  of  the 
Second  Type,  where  the  writer  wishes  to  assert  the  accomplishment  of  a 
result  more  positively ;  as,  — 

aliter  si  faciat,  nuUam  habet   auctoritatem,  if  he  should  do 
otherwise,  he  has  no  authority. 

Third    Type.  —  Supposed    Case     Represented    as     Contrary    to 

Fact. 

304.  I.  Here  we  regularly  have  the  Subjunctive  in  both 
Protasis  and  Apodosis,  the  Imperfect  referring  to  presefzt 
time,  and  the  Pluperfect  referring  to  past ;  as, — 

si  amici  mei  adessent,  opis  non  indifeerem,  if  my  friends -were  here, 
I  should  not  lack  assistance ; 

si  hoc  dixisses,  errasses,  if  you  had  said  this,  you  woidd  have 
e7'red', 

sapientia  non  expeteretur,  si  nihil  efficeret,  philosophy  woidd  not 
be  desired,  if  it  accojnplished  jiothing ; 

c5nsiliuni,  ratio,  sententia.nisi  assent  in  senibus,  non  summum 
consilium  majorSs  nostri  appellassent  senatum,  unless  de- 
liberation, reason,  and  wisdom  existed  in  old  men,  our  ajices- 
tors  would  not  have  called  their  highest  deliberative  body  a 
senate. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  is  found  referring  to  the 
past,  especially  to  denote  a  continued  act,  or  a  state  of  things  still  exist- 
ing; as,— 

Laelius,  Furius,  Cat 6  si  nihil  litteris  adjuvarentur,  numquam  se 
ad  earum  studium  contulissent,  Laelitis,  Furius,  and  Cato 
would  never  have  devoted  thetriselves  to  the  study  of  letters, 
unless  they  had  been  {constajttly)  helped  by  them ; 

num  igitur  si  ad  centesimum  annum  vixisset,  senectutis  eum 
suae  paeniteret,  zf  he  had  lived  to  his  hundredth  year,  would  he 
have  regretted  {and  now  be  regretting)  his  old  age  f 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  20I 

3.     The  Apodosis  in  conditional  sentences  of  this  type  sometimes 
stands  in  the  Indicative  (Imperfect,  Perfect,  or  Pluperfect),  viz. — 

a)  Frequently  in  expressions  of  ability,  obligation,  or  necessity  ; 
.  as, — ■ 

nisi   felicitas   in   socordiam    vertisset,    exuere   jugum 
potuerunt,  unless  their  prosperity  had  turned  to  folly, 
they  cotdd  have  thrown  off  the  yoke ; 
Note.  —  In  sentences  of  this  type,  however,  it  is  not  \he  possibility  that  is  repre-  • 
sented  as-contrary-to-fact,  but  something  to  be  supplied  in  thought  from  the  context. 
Thus  in  the  foregoing  sentence  the  logical  apodosis  is  et  exuissent  understood 
{and  they  would  have  shaken  it  off) .     When  the  posjibility  itself  is  conditioned,  the 
Subjunctive  is  used. 

eum  patris  loc5  colere  debebas,  si  ulla  in  te  pietas 
esset,  you  ought  to  revere  him  as  a  father,  if  you  had 
any  sense  of  devotion. 

b)  With  both  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations;  as, — 

si  Sestius  occisus  esset,   fuistisne    ad    arma   ituri,    if 

Sestius  had  been   slain,  would  yoti  have  proceeded  to 

arms  ? 
si   unum    diem   morati    essetis,    moriendum.    omnibus 

fuit,  if  you  had  delayed  one  day,  you  woidd  all  have 

had  to  die. 

Protasis  expressed  Tvithout  Si. 
305.  •   I.     The  Protasis  is  not  always  expressed  by  a  clause  with  si, 

but  may  be  implied  in  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  merely  by  the  context; 

as, — 

alioqui  haeo  non  scriberentur,  otherwise  {i.e.  if  matters  were  other- 
wise) these  things  would  not  be  written  ; 

non  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dirigentes,  retinere  virtutem,  you 
cannot  retain  virtue,  if  you  direct  everything  with  reference  to 
pleasure. 
2.     Sometimes  an  Imperative,  or  a  Jussive    Subjunctive,  serves  as 

Protasis.     Thus  :  — 

eras  petito,  dabitur,  if  you  ask  to-7norrow,  it  shall  be  givejt  you  (lit. 
ask  to-morrow,  etc.)  ; 

haeo  reputent,  videbunt,  if  they  consider  this,  they  will  see  (lit.  let 
them  consider,  etc.)  ; 

roges   Zenonem,   respondeat,   zf  you  shotdd  ask  Zeno,   he  would 
answer. 


202  SYNTAX. 


Use  of  Nisi,  Si  Nan,  Sin. 
306.     I.     Nisi,  unless^  negatives  the  entire  protasis;  si  non  nega- 
tives a  single  word ;  as,  — 
ferreus  essem,  nisi  te  amarem,  /  should  be  hard-hearted  unless  1 

loved  y 071 ;  but  — 
ferreus  essem,  si  te  non  amarem,  /  should  be  hard-hearted  if  I  did 
NOT  lo7ie  yoti. 
In  the  first  example,  it  is  the  notion  of  loving  you  that  is  negatived, 
in  the  second,  the  notion  of  loving. 

2.  Si  non  (si  minus)  is  regularly  employed  :  — 

a)  When  an  apodosis  with  at,  tamen,  certe  follows ;  as,  — 
dolorem  si  non  potuero  frangere,  tamen  occultabo,  if 

I  cannot  criish  niy  sorrow.,  yet  I  will  hide  it. 

^)  When  an  affirmative  protasis  is  repeated  in  negative  form ; 
as, — 
si   feceris,    magnam   habebo    gratiam ;    si  n5n  feceris, 

ignoscam,  if  you  do  it,  I  shall  be  deeply  grateful;  if  you 

do  not  do  it,  I  shall  pardon  you. 

a.  But  if  the  verb  is   omitted  in  the  repetition,  only  si  minus  or  sin 
minus  is  admissible ;  as,  — 
hoc  si  assecutus  sum,  gaudeo;  si  minus,  me  consolor,  e/ / 

have  attained  this,  I  am  glad ;  if  not,  1  console  myself. 

3.  Sin.  Where  one  protasis  is  followed  by  another  opposed  in 
meaning,  but  affirmative  in  form,  the  second  is  introduced  by  sin  ;  as,  — 
hunc  mihi  timorem  eripe ;  si  verus  est,  ne  opprimar,  sin  falsus, 

ut  timere  desinam,  relieve  me  of  this  fear;  if  it  is  well 
foimded,  that  I  may  not  be  destroyed;  but  if  it  is  groundless, 
that  I  may  cease  to  fear. 

4.  Nisi  has  a  fondness  for  combining  with  negatives  (non,  nem5, 

nihil)  ;  as,  — 
nihil  cogitavit  nisi  caedem,  he  had  no  thought  but  7}iurder. 
a.  Non  and  nisi  are  always  separated  in  the  best  Latinity. 

5.  Nisi  forte,  nisi  vero,  nisi  si,  unless  perchance,  unless  indeed 
(often  with  ironical  force),  take  the  Indicative ;  as, — 

nisi  vero,  quia  perfecta  res  non  est,  non  videtur  piinienda, 
unless  indeed,  because  an  act  is  not  consimimated,  it  does  not 
seefn  to  merit  punishment. 


CONDITIONAL   CLAUSES   OF   COMPARISON.       203 

Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison. 

307.  I.  Conditional  Clauses  of  Comparison  are  intro- 
duced by  the  particles,  ac  si,  ut  si,  quasi,  quam  si,  tamquam 
si,  velut  si,  or  simply  by  velut  or  tamquam.  They  stand  in 
the  Subjunctive  mood  and  regularly  involve  an  ellipsis  (see 
§  374,  i),  as  indicated  in  the  following  examples :  — 

tantus  patres  metus  cepit,  velut  si  jam  ad  portas  hostis  esset,  as 

great  fear  seized  the  senators  as  {would  have  seized  iheni)  if  the 

enemy  were  already  at  the  gates ; 
sed  quid  ego  his  testibus  utor  quasi  res  dubia  aut  obscura  sit, 

diit  why  do  I  use  these  witnesses,  as  {I  should  do)  if  the  77iatter 

were  doubtful  or  obscure ; 
serviam  tibi  tarn  quasi  emeris  me  argento,  /  will  serve  you  as 

though  you  had  bought  me  for  7?toney. 

2.  Note  that  in  sentences  of  this  kind  the  Latin  observes  the  regu- 
lar principles  for  the  Sequence  of  Tenses.  Thus  after  principal  tenses 
the  Latin  uses  the  Present  and  Perfect  (as  in  the  second  and  third  exam- 
ples), where  the  English  uses  the  Past  and  Past  Perfect. 

Concessive.  Clauses. 

308.  The  term  *  Concessive '  is  best  restricted  to  those 
clauses  developed  from  the  Jussive  Subjunctive  which 
have  the  force  of  granted  that,  etc.;  (see  §  278)  as,  — 

sit  fur,  sit  sacrilegus,  at  est  bonus  imperator,  granted  that  he  is  a 
thief  and  a  robber,  yet  he  is  a  good  cotnmander ; 

haec  sint  falsa,  granted  that  this  is  false ; 

ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  granted  that  ^ain 
is  not  the  greatest  evil,  yet  it  is  certainly  an  evil. 

Adversative  Clauses  with  Quam  vis,  Quamquam,  etc. 

309.  Clauses  introduced  by  quamvis,  quamquam,  etsi, 
tametsi,  cum,  although,  while  often  classed  as  *  Conces- 
sive,' are  yet  essentially  different  from  genuine  Concessive 
clauses.  As  a  rule,  they  do  not  grant  or  concede  any- 
thing, but  rather  state  that  something  is  true  in  spite  of 


204  SYNTAX. 


something  else.  They  accordingly  emphasize  the  adver- 
sative idea,  and  are  properly  Subordinate  Adversative 
Clauses.  The  different  particles  used  to  introduce  these 
clauses  have  different  meanings  and  take  different  con- 
structions, as  follows :  — 

1 .  Quamvis,  however  iniich,  although^  does  not  introduce  a  state- 
ment of  fact,  but  represents  an  act  merely  as  conceived.  It  is  followed 
by  the  Subjunctive,  usually  of  the  present  tense  ;  as,  — 

homines  quamvis  in  turbidis  rebus  sint,  tarn  en  interdum  animis 

relaxantur,  in  however  stirring  events  7nejt  may  engage,  yet  at 

times  they  relax  their  energies ; 
non  est  potestas  opitulandi  rei  publicae  quamvis  ea  prematur 

periculis,  there  is  no  opportunity  to  succor  the  state,  though  it 

be  beset  by  datigers. 

2.  Quamquam,  etsi,  tametsi,  although,  introduce  a  statement  of 
fact,  and  are  followed  by  the  Indicative  (of  any  tense)  ;  as, — 
quamquam  omnis  virtus  nos  allicit,  tamen  justitia  id  maxime 

efficit,  although  all  virtue  attracts  us,  yet  justice  does  so  espe- 
cially ; 
Caesar,  etsi  nondum  consilium  hostium  cognoverat,  tamen  id 
quod  accidit  suspicabatur,  Caesar,  though  he  did  not  yet  know 
the  plans  of  the  enemy,  yet  was  suspecting  what  actually  occurred. 

a.  Etsi,  although,  must  be  distinguished  from  etsi,  even  if.  The  latter 
is  a  conditional  particle  and  takes  any  of  the  constructions  admissible 
for  si.     (See  \\  302-304.) 

3.  Cum,  although,  is  followed  by  the  Subjunctive;  as, — 
Atticus  honores  non  petiit,  cum  ei  paterent,  Atticus  did  not  seek 

honors,  thotigh  they  were  open  to  him. 

4.  Licet  sometimes  loses  its  verbal  force  (see  §  295,  6)  and  sinks  to 
the  level  of  a  conjunction  with  the  force  of  although.  It  takes  the 
Subjunctive,  Present  or  Perfect ;  as,  — 

licet  omnes  terrores   impendeant,  succurram,  though  all  terrors 
hang  over  me,  {yef)  I  will  lend  aid. 

5.  Quamquam,  with  the  force  and  yet,  is  often  used  to  introduce 
principal  clauses  ;  as,  — 

quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I  speak? 


CLAUSES  OF  PROVISO.  —  RELATIVE   CLAUSES.     205 

6.  In  post-Augustan  writers  quamquam  is  freely  construed  with  the  Sub- 
junctive, while  quamvis  is  often  used  to  introduce  statements  of  fact,  and  takes 
either  the  Indicative  or  the  Subjunctive.    Thus :  — 

quamquam  moveretur  his  vocibus,  although  he  was  moved  by  these  words; 
quamvis  multi  opinarentur,  though  many  thought; 
quam.vis  infesto  animo  perveneras,  though  you  had  come  with  hostile  intent. 


Clauses  with  Dum,  Mo  do,  Dummodo,  denoting  a  Wish 
or  a  Proviso. 

310.  These  particles  are  followed  by  the  Subjunctive 
(negative  ne)  and  have  two  distinct  uses  :  — 

I.  They  are  used  to  introduce  clauses  embodying  a  wish 
entertained  by  the  subject  of  the  leading  verb  ;  as,  — 

multi  honesta   neglegunt   dununodo   potentiam  consequantur, 

many  neglect  honor  in  their  desire  to  obtain  power  (  if  otily  they 

may  attaiii)  ; 
omnia  postposui,  dum  praeceptis  patris  parerem,  I  made  everything 

else  secondary,  in  my  desire  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  my  father ; 
nil  obstat  tibi,  dum  ne  sit  ditior  alter,  nothing  hinders  you  in  your 

desire  that  yotir  jieighbor  may  not  be  richer  than  you. 

II.  They  are  used  to  express  a  proviso  {^provided 
that'))  as, — 

oderint,  dum  metuant,  let  theni  hate,  provided  they  fear  ; 

manent  ingenia  senibus,  modo  permaneat  studium  et  industria, 

old  7nen  retain  their  faculties,  provided  only  they  retai7i  their 
interest  and  vigor ; 
nubant,  dum  ne  dos  fiat  comes,  let  them  marry,  provided  no  dowry 
goes  with  it. 

Relative  Clauses. 

311.  Relative  Clauses  are  introduced  by  Relative  Pro- 
nouns, Adjectives,  or  Adverbs. 

312.  I.  Relative  clauses  usually  stand  in  the  Indicative  Mood, 
especially  clauses  introduced  by  those  General  Relatives  which  are 
doubled  or  have  the  suffix  -cumque  ;  as,  — 


2o6  SYNTAX. 


quidquid  id  est,  timeo  Danaos  et  dona  ferentes,  whatever  it  2s,  1 
fear  the  Greeks  eveti  when  they  offer  gifts ; 

quidquid  oritur,  qualeoumque  est,  causam  a  natura  habet,  what- 
ever comes  into  beings  of  whatever  sort  it  is,  has  its  primal  cause 
in  Nature. 

2.    Any  simple  Relative  may  introduce  a  conditional  sentence   of 
any  of  the  three  types  mentioned  in  §§  302-304  ;  as,  — 
qui  hoc  dicit,  errat,  he  who  says  this  is  7nistaken  (First  Type)  ; 
qui  hoc   dioat,  erret,   he  would  be   7nistaken  who  should  say  this 

(Second  Type)  ; 
qui  hoc  dixisset,  errasset,  the  man  who  had  said  this  would  have 
been  mistaken. 

INDIRECT  DISCOURSE   (ORATIO   OBLIQUA). 

313.  When  the  language  or  thought  of  any  person  is 
reproduced  without  change,  that  is  called  Direct  Discourse 
{Ordtio  Recta) ;  as,  Caesar  said,  '  The  die  is  cast'  When, 
on  the  other  hand,  one's  language  or  thought  is  made  to 
depend  upon  a  verb  of  saying,  thinkifig,  etc.,  that  is  called 
Indirect  Discourse  ((9m//^  Obllqua^ ;  as,  Caesar  said  that 
the  die  was  cast ;  Caesar  tJiought  that  his  troops  were 
victorious. 

a.    For  the  verbs  most  frequently  employed  to  introduce  Indirect 
Discourse,  see  §  331. 

MOODS   IN    INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 
Declarative  Sentences. 

314.  I.  Declarative  Sentences  upon  becoming  Indirect 
change  their  main  clause  to  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accusative,  while  all  subordinate  clauses  take  the  Subjunc- 
tive ;  as,  — 

Regulus  dixit  quam  diu  jure  jurando  hostium  teneretur  non  esse 
se  senatdrem,  Regulus  said  that  as  long  as  he  was  held  by  his 
pledge  to  the  enemy  he  was  not  a  senator.  (Direct :  quam  diu 
teneor  11011  sum  senator.) 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  207 

2.  The  verb  of  sayings  thinking,  etc.,  is  sometimes  to  be  inferred 
from  the  context ;  as,  — 

turn  Romulus  legates  circa  vicinas  gentes  misit  qui  societatem 
conubiumque  peterent :  urbes  quoque,  ut  cetera,  ex 
infimo  nasci,  then  Rojnulus  sent  envoys  around  aifiong  the 
neighboring  tribes,  to  ask  for  alliance  and  the  right  of  inter- 
marriage, {saying  that)  cities,  like  everything  else,  start  frojn  a 
7nodest  beginning. 

3.  Subordinate  clauses  which  contain  an  explanatory  statement  of 
the  writer  and  so  are  not  properly  a  part  of  the  Indirect  Discourse,  or 
which  emphasize  the  fact  stated,  take  the  Indicative ;  as, — 
nuntiatum  est  Ariovistum  ad  occupandum  Vesontionem,  quod 

est  oppidum  maximum  Sequanorum  contendere,  //  was  re- 
ported that  Ariovistiis  was  hastening  to  seize  Vesontio,*which  is 
the  largest  town  of  the  Sequajii. 

4.  Sometimes  a  subordinate  clause  is  such  only  in  its  external  form, 
and  in  sense  is  principal.  It  then  takes  the  Infinitive  with  Subject 
Accusative.  This  occurs  especially  in  case  of  relative  clauses,  where 
qui  is  equivalent  to  et  hic,  nam  hic,  etc. ;  as,  — 

dixit  urbem  Atheniensium  propugnaculum  oppositum  esse  bar- 
barls,  apud  quam  jam  bis  classes  regias  fecisse  naufra- 
gium,  he  said  the  city  of  the  Athenians  had  been  set  against  the 
barbarians  like  a  bidwark,  near  which  (  =  atid  near  it)  the  fleets 
of  the  King  had  twice  met  disaster. 

5.  The  Subject  Accusative  of  the  Infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted 
when  it  refers  to  the  same  person  as  the  subject  of  the  leading 
verb,  or  can  easily  be  supplied  from  the  context ;  as,  — 

cum  id  nescire  Mago  diceret,  when  Mago  said  he  did  not  know 
this  (for  se  nescire). 

Interrogative  Sentences. 

315.  I.  Real  questions  of  the  Direct  Discourse,  upon 
becoming  indirect,  are  regularly  put  in  the  Subjunc- 
tive ;  as,  — 

Ariovistus  Caesarl  respondit :  se  prius  in  Galliam  venisse  quam 
populum  Romanum.  Quid  sibi  vellet  ?  Cur  in  suas  pos- 
sessiones    veniret,    Ariovistus    replied    to    Caesar    that    he 


2o8  SYNTAX. 


had  come  into  Gaul  before  the  Roman  people.  What  did  he 
(^Caesa?')  mean  f  Why  did  he  come  into  his  domaiti  f  (Direct : 
quid  tibi  vis  ?  cur  in  meas  possessiones  veins  ?) 

2.  Rhetorical  questions,  on  the  other  hand,  being  asked 
merely  for  effect,  and  being  equivalent  in  force  to  emphatic 
statements,  regularly  stand  in  the  Infinitive  in  Indirect  Dis- 
course.    Thus :  — 

quid  est  levius  (lit.  what  is  more  trivial,  =  nothing  is  more  trivial) 
of  the  Direct  Discourse  becomes  quid  esse  levius  in  the  In- 
direct. 

3.  Deliberative  Subjunctives  of  the  Direct  Discourse  remain  un- 
changed in  mood  in  the  Indirect:  as, — 

quid  f aceret,  what  was  he  to  do  ?     (Direct :  quid  f aciat  ?) 

Imperative  Sentences. 

316.  All  Imperatives  or  Jussive  Subjunctives  of  the 
Direct  Discourse  appear  as  Subjunctives  in  the  In- 
direct ;  as,  — 

milites   certiores    fecit    paulisper    intermitterent    proelium,   he 
told   the   soldiers   to   stop    the    battle  for    a    little.       (Direct : 
intermittite.) 
a.   The  negative  in  such  sentences  is  ne  ;  as, — 

ne  suae  virtuti  tribueret,  let  him  not  attribide  it  to  his  own 

valor  I 

TENSES   IN   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 
A.   Tenses  of  the  Infinitive. 

317.  These  are  used  in  accordance  with  the  regular 
principles  for  the  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  given  in  §  270. 

a.    The  Perfect  Infinitive  may  represent  any  past  tense  of  the 

Indicative  of  Direct  Discourse.     Thus  :  — 

scio  te  haec  egisse  may  mean  — 

I  know  you  were  doi?tg  this.     (Direct:  haec  agebas.) 
I  know  you  did  this.  (Direct:  haec  egisti.) 

I  know  you  had  done  this.        (Direct :  haec  egeras.) 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  209 

B.    Tenses  of  the  Subjiinctive. 

318.  These  follow  the  regular  principle  for  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses,  being  Principal  if  the  verb  of  saying  is  Princi- 
pal ;  Historical  if  it  is  Historical.  Yet  for  the  sake  of 
vividness,  we  often  find  the  Present  Subjunctive  used 
after  an  historical  tense  {Repraesentdtio) ;  as,  — 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  dentur,  sese  pacem  esse  facturum, 

Caesar  replied  that,  if  hostages  be  given,  he  would  make  peace. 

a.   For  the  sequence  after  the  Perfect  Infinitive,  see  §  268,  2. 

CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES   IN    INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 
Conditional  Sentences  of  the  First  Type. 

319.  A.  The  Apodosis.  Any  tense  of  the  Indicative 
is  changed  to  the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Infinitive 
(§§  270;  317,^). 

B.  The  Protasis.  The  protasis  takes  those  tenses  of 
the  Subjunctive  which  are  required  by  the  Sequence 
of  Tenses. 

Examples:  — 

Direct.  Indirect. 


SI  hoc  credis,  erras, 
SI  hoc  credes,  errabis 


dico,  sT  hoc  credas,  te  errare ; 

dixi,  sl  hoc  crederes,  te  errare. 

(  dico,  sT  hoc  credas,  te  erraturum  esse  ; 

1  dixT,  si  hoc  credereSjte  erraturum  esse. 

C  dico,  Sl  hoc  credideris,  te  erraturum 

I      esse  * 
Sl  hoc  credideris,  errabis,    -{,__' 

I  dixi,  Sl  hoc  credidisses,  te  erraturum 

I      esse. 

-,-         --,-,-  _.^_f  dico,  sT  hoc  crederes,  te  erravisse  : 

SI  hoc  credebas,  erravisti,    {.___._  ,  _  . 

[  dixi,  Sl  hoc  crederes,  te  erravisse. 

a.  Note  that  a  Future  Perfect  Indicative  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
regularly  appears  in  the  Indirect  as  a  Perfect  Subjunctive 
after  a  principal  tense,  and  as  a  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after 
an  historical  tense. 


2IO  SYNTAX. 


Conditional  Sentences  of  the  Second  Type. 

320.  A.  The  Apodosis.  The  Present  Subjunctive  of 
the  Direct  Discourse  regularly  becomes  the  Future  Infini- 
tive of  the  Indirect. 

B.   The  Protasis.     The  Protasis  takes  those  tenses  of 

the  Subjunctive  demanded  by  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

Examples:  — 

_  ,  _        _  __  _        (  dlco,  sT  hoc  credas,  te  erraturum  esse ; 

SI  hoc  credas,  erres,    -^,___,_        _^_       _        _ 

[  dixi,  SI  hoc  crederes,  te  erraturum  esse. 

Conditional  Sentences  of  the  Third  Type. 

321.  A.  The  Apodosis. 

1.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
becomes  the  Future  Infinitive. 

a.  But  this  construction  is  rare,  being  represented  in  the  clas- 
sical Latinity  by  a  single  example  (Caesar,  V.  29.  2).  Some 
scholars  question  the  correctness  of  this  passage. 

2.  The  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
becomes  :  — 

a)  In  the  Active  Voice  the  Infinitive  in  -urus  fuisse. 
3)   In  the  Passive  Voice  it  takes  the  form  futurum  fuisse  ut 
with  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive. 

B.    The  Protasis.     The   protasis    in   Conditional   Sen 
tences  of  this  type  always  remains  unchanged. 
Examples :  — 

81  h5c  crederes,  errares,  dico  (dixT),  sT  hoc  crederes,  te  er- 

raturum esse ; 

si  hoc  credidisses,  erravisses,       dico  (dixT),  si  hoc  credidisses,  te 

erraturum  fuisse ; 

si  hoc  dixisses,  punitus  esses,  dico  (dixT),  sT  hoc  dixisses,  futu- 
rum fuisse  ut  punlreris. 

322.  When  an  apodosis  of  a  conditional  sentence  of  the  Third 
Type  referring  to  the  past  is  at  the  same  time  a  Result  clause,  or  a 


I 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE.  211 

quin-clause  (after  non   dubito,  etc.^^  it  stands  in  the  Perfect  Sub- 
junctive in  the  form  -urus  fuerim  ;  as, — 

ita  territi  sunt,  ut  arma  tradituri  fuerint,i  nisi  Caesar  subito 
advenisset,  they  were  so  frightened  that  they  would  have  given 
T(p  their  arms,  had  not  Caesar  suddenly  arrived ; 
non  dubito  quin,  si  hoc  dixisses,  erraturus  f ueris,i  /  do  not  doubt 
that,  if  you  had  said  this,  you  would  have  made  a  mistake. 

a.  This  peculiarity  is  confined  to  the  Active  Voice.  In  the 
Passive,  such  sentences,  when  they  become  dependent, 
remain  unchanged  ;  as, — 

non  dubito  quin,  si  hoc  dixisses,  vituperatus  esses,  / 
do  not  doubt  that,  if  you  had  said  this,  you  would  have 
been  blamed. 

b.  When  an  Indirect  Question  becomes  an  apodosis  in  a  con- 
ditional sentence  of  the  Third  Type,  -urus  fuerim  (rarely 
-urus  fuissem)  is  used  ;  as,  — 

quaero,  num,  si  hoc  dixisses,  erraturus  fueris  (or 
fuisses) . 

c.  Potui,  when  it  becomes  a  dependent  apodosis  in  sentences  of  this 
Type,  usually  changes  to  the  Perfect  Subjunctive;  as, — 
concursu  totius  civitatis  defensi  sunt,  ut  frig-idissimos 

quoque    oratores    populi    studia    excitare   potuerint, 

they  were  defended  before  a  gathering  of  all  the  citizens^  so  that  the 
interest  of  the  people  would  have  been  enough  to  excite  even  the 
most  apathetic  orators. 

IMPLIED   INDIRECT   DISCOURSE. 

323.    The  Subjunctive  is  often  used  in  subordinate  clauses  whose 
Indirect  character  is  merely  iiTipiied  by  the  context  ^  as, — 
demonstrabantur  mihi  praeterea,  quae  Socrates  de  immortali- 
tate  animorum  disseruisset,  there  were  explained  to  me  be- 
sides., the  argumejtts  which  Socrates  had  set  forth  concerning  the 
immortality  of  the  soul  {i.e.  the  arguments  which,  it  was  said, 
Socrates  had  set  forth)  ; 
Paetus  omnes  libros  quos  pater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  donavit, 
Paetus  gave  me  all  the  books  which  {as  he  said')  his  father  had  left. 

1  Tradituri  fuerint  and  erraturus  fueris  are  to  be  regarded  as  repre- 
senting tradituri  fuerunt  and  erraturus  fuisti  of  Direct  Discourse.  (See 
1 304-  3-  ^0 


212  SYNTAX. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    BY   ATTRACTION. 

324,  I.  Subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  the  Sub- 
junctive are  frequently  attracted  into  the  same  mood, 
especially  when  they  do  not  express  a  fact,  but  constitute 
un  essential  part  of  07ie  complex  idea  ;  as,  — 

nemo  avarus  adhuc  inventus  est,  cui,  quod  haberet,  esset  satis, 

.  no  fniser  has  yet  beeii  found  who  was  satisfied  with   what  he 

had; 
cum    diversas    causas  afferrent,    dum   formam   sul   quisque   et 

animi  et  ingenii  redderent,  as  they  brought  forward  different 

argu7nents,  while  each  mirrored  his   own  individual  type  of 

mind  and  natural  beitt ; 
quod  ego  fatear,  pudeat  ?  should  I  be  ashamed  of  a  thing  which  I 

admit  f 

2.  Similariy  a  subordinate  clause  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive 
is  put  in  the  Subjunctive  when  the  two  form  one  closely  united 
whole;  as, — 

mos  est  Athenls  quotannis  in  contione  laudari  eos  qui  sint  in 
proeliis  interfecti,  it  is  the  custom  at  Athens  every  year  for 
those  to  be  publicly  eulogized  who  have  been  killed  in  battle. 
(Here  the  notion  of  'praising  those  who  fell  in  battle'  forms 
an  inseparable  whole.) 

NOUN   AND   ADJECTIVE  FORMS   OF   THE  VERB. 

325.  These  are  the  Infinitive,  Participle,  Gerund,  and 
Supine.  All  of  these  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  Verb, 
on  the  one  hand,  and  of  the  Noun  or  Adjective,  on  the 
other.     Thus :  — 


^)   They  may  be  limited  by  adverbs ; 

^)    They  admit  an  object ; 

^)    They  have  the  properties  of  voice  and  tense. 

As  Nouns  or  Adjectives, — 
a^    They  are  declined  ; 
b)   They  take  Noun  or  Adjective  constructions. 


NOUN  AND   ADJECTIVE   FORMS   OF  THE   VERB.      213 

THE    INFINITIVE. 
Infinitive  without  Subject  Accusative. 

326.  This  is  used  chiefly  as  Subject  or  Object  but  also  as 
Predicate  or  Appositive. 

Note.  —  The  Infinitive  was  originally  a  Dative,  and  traces  of  this  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  poetical  use  of  the  Infinitive  to  express  purpose  ;  as,  nec  dulces  occur- 
rent  oscula  nati  praeripere,  and  tto  sweet  children  will  run  to  snatch  kisses. 

A.     As  Subject. 

327.  I.  The  Infinitive  without-  Subject  Accusative  is 
used  as  the  Subject  of  esse  and  various  impersonal  verbs, 
particularly  opus  est,  necesse  est,  oportet,  juvat,  dglectat, 
placet,  libet,  licet,  praestat,  decet,  pudet,  interest,  etc.  ;   as,  — 

dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patria  mori,  it  is  sweet  and  noble  to  die 

for  one'^s  country  ] 
virorum  est  fortium  toleranter  dolorem  pati,  it  is  the  part  of  brave 

men  to  e7idure  pain  with  patie7ice ; 
senatui  placuit  legates  mittere,  the  Senate  decided  (lit.  it  pleased  the 

Senate)  to  send  envoys. 

1.  Even  though  the  Infinitive  itself  appears  without  Subject,  it  may 
take  a  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  in  the  Accusative ;  as,  — 

aliud  est  iracundum  esse,  aliud  iratum,  it  is  one  thing  to  be  irasci- 
ble., another  to  be  angry; 

impune  quaelibet  facere,  id.  est  regem  esse,  to  do  whatever  you 
please  with  iinpunity.,  that  is  to  be  a  ki?ig. 

a.  But  -when  licet  is  followed  by  a  Dative   of  the  person,   a  Predicate 

Noun  or  Adjective  with   esse   is  attracted  into  the  same  case;    as, 

licuit  esse  Otioso  Themistocli,  lit.  it  was  permitted  to  Themisto- 
cles  to  be  at  leisure.     So  sometimes  with  other  Impersonals. 

B,   As  Object. 

328.  I.  The  Infinitive  without  Subject  Accusative  is 
used  as  the  Object  of  many  verbs,  to  denote  another  action 
of  the  same  subject,  particularly  after  — 

volo,   cupiS,   malo,   nolo  ;  cogito,  meditor,  purpose^  intend; 

debeo,  ought ;  neglego,  neglect ; 

stsLtuo,  constituoy  decide  ;  ^r ex eoi,  timed,  fear ; 


214  SYNTAX. 


audeo,  dare ;  matiiro,  festino,  propero,   con- 

studeo,  contends,  strive ;  tendo,  hasten ; 

paro,  prepare  (so  paratus)  ;  assuesco,     consuesco,    accustom 

incipio,  coepi,  instituo,  begin  ;  myself  (so  assuetus,  insuetus. 

pergo,  continue ;  assuefactus)  ; 

desino,  desisto,  cease ;  disco,  learn ; 

possum,  can  ;  scio,  know  how ; 

Conor,  try ;  soleo,  am  wont;  as, — 

tu  hos  intueri  audes,  do  you  dare  to  look  on  these  iTien  ? 
Demosthenes  ad  fluctus   maris   declamare    solebat,  Demosthenes 
used  to  declaim  by  the  waves  of  the  sea. 

2.   A  Predicate  Noun  or  Adjective  with  these  Infinitives  is  attracted 
into  the  Nominative  ;  as, — 
beatus  esse  sine  virtiite  nemo  potest,  no  one  can  be  happy  without 

virtue ; 
Cat5  esse  quam  videri  bonus  malebat,  Cato  preferred  to  be  good 

rather  than  to  seem  so. 

Infinitive  -with  Subject  Accusative. 

329.  This  is  used  chiefly  as  Subject  or  Object  but  also 
as  Predicate  or  Appositive. 

A.  As  Subject. 

330.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  (h*ke  the 
simple  Infinitive)  is  used  as  Subject  with  esse  and  Imper- 
sonal verbs,  particularly  with  aequum  est,  utile  est,  turpe 
est,  fama  est,  spes  est,  fas  est,  nefas  est,  opus  est,  necesse 
est,  oportet,  constat,  praestat,  licet,  etc.  ;   as,  — 

nihil  in  bello  oportet  contemni,  nothing  ought  to  be  despised  in  war; 

apertum  est  sibi  quemque  natura  esse  carum,  //  is  manifest  that 
by  nature  everybody  is  dear  to  himself. 

B.  As  Object. 

331.  The  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative  is  used  as 
Object  after  the  following  classes  of  verbs : 

I.  Most  frequently  after  verbs  of  saying.,  thinkings  knowings  per- 
ceivings and  the  like  {Verba  Sentiendl  et  Decldrandt).     This   is   the 


NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB.  21$ 

regular  construction  of  Principal  Clauses  of  Indirect  Discourse.  Verbs 
that  take  this  construction  are,  among  others,  the  following:  sentio, 
audio,  video,  cognosco ;  puto,  judico,  spero,  confido ;  scio, 
memini ;  dico,  affirmo,  nego  {say  that  .  .  .  not),  trado,  narro, 
fateor,  respondeo,  scriTbo,  promitto,  glorior.  Also  the  phrases : 
certiorem  facio  (m/orm),  memoria  teneo  {re7nember),  etc. 
Examples :  — 

Epiciirei  putant  cum  corporibus  simul  animos  interire,  the  Epi- 
cureans think  that  the  soul  perishes  with  the  body ; 

Thales  dixit  aquam  esse  initium  rerum,  Thales  said  that  water  was 
the  first  principle  of  the  universe  ; 

Democritus  negat  quicquid  esse  sempiternum,  Democritus  says 
nothing  is  everlasting ', 

spero  eum  venturum  esse,  I  hope  thathe^willjrQ^jie. 

II.  With  jubeo,  t7r^^r,  and  veto, y^r^zV/,-  as, — 

Caesar  milites  pontem  facere  jussit,  Caesar  ordered  the  soldiers  to 
make  a  bridge. 

a.  When  the  name  of  the  person  who  is  ordered  or  forbidden  to  do 
something  is  omitted,  the  Infinitive  with  jubeo  and  veto  is  put  in 
the  Passive ;  as,  Caesar  pontem  fieri  jussit. 

III.  With  patior  and  sino,  pe?'7nit,  allow;  as, — 

uilllo  se  implicarl  negotio  passus  est,  he  did  not  permit  himself  to 
be  involved  in  any  difficulty. 

IV.  With  volo,  nolo,  malo,  cupio,  when  the  Subject  of  the  Infini- 
tive is  different  from  that  of  the  governing  verb  ;  as,  — 

neo  mihi  hunc  errorem  extorqueri  volo,  nor  do  I  wish  this  error  to 

be  wrested  from  7ne ; 
eas  res  jactari  nolebat,  he  was  unwilling  that  these  matters  should  be 

discussed; 
t§  tua  frui  virtute  cupimus,  we  desire  that  you  enjoy  your  worth. 

a.  When  the  Subject  of  both  verbs  is  the  same,  the  simple  Infinitive  is 
regularly  used  in  accordance  with  \  328.  i.  But  exceptions  occur,  es- 
pecially in  case  of  esse  and  Passive  Infinitives ;  as,  — 

cupio  me  esse  clementem,  /  desire  to  be  lenient; 
Timoleon  maluit  se  diligi  quam  metui,  Timoleon  preferred  to 
be  loved  rather  than  feared. 

b.  Volo  also  admits  the  Subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut ;  nolo  the  Sub- 
junctive alone.     (See  \  296.  i.  a.) 


2l6  SYNTAX. 


V.  With  Verbs  of  emotion  {Joy,  sorrow,  regret,  etc.),  especially 
gaudeo,  laetor,  doleo  ;  aegre  fero,  moleste  fero,  graviter  fero,  am 
an?ioyed,  distressed;  miror,  queror,  indignor  ;  as, — 

gaudeo  te  salvum  advenire,  I  rejoice  that  you  arrive  safely ; 

noil  moleste  ferunt  se  libidinum  vinculis  laxatos  gsse,  they  are 

not  trotcbled  at  being  released  from  the  bonds  of  passion  ; 
miror  te  ad  me  nihil  scribere,  /  wonder  that  you  write  77ie  nothing. 

a.   Instead  of  an  Infinitive  these  verbs  also  sometimes  admit  a  quod- 
clause  as  Object.     (See  \  299.)     Thus  :  — 
miror  quod  non  loqueris,  /  wonder  that  you  do  not  speak. 

VI.  Some  verbs  which  take  two  Accusatives,  one  of  the  Person  and 
the  other  of  the  Thing  (§  178,  i),  may  substitute  an  Infinitive  for  the 
second  Accusative  ;  as,  — 

cojgo  te  hoc  facere,  I  compel  you  to  do  this  {cf  te  hoc  cogo)  ; 
docui  te  cpntentum  esse,  /  taught  you  to  be  content  (cf.  te  modes- 
tiam  docui,  I  taught  you  te/nperajice) . 

Passive  Construction  of  the  Foregoing  Verbs. 

332.  Those  verbs  which  m  the  Active  are  followed  by 
the  Infinitive  with  Subject  Accusative,  usually  admit  the 
personal  construction  of  the  Passive.  This  is  true  of  the 
following  and  of  some  others  :  — 

a)  jubeor,  vetor,  sinor  ;  as, — 

milites  pontem  facere  jussi  sunt,  the  soldiers  were  ordered 

to  build  a  bridge ; 
pons  fieri  jussus  est,  a  bridge  was  ordered  built; 
milites  castris  exire  vetiti  sunt,  the  troops  were  forbidden 

to  go  out  of  the  ca7np ; 
Sestius    Clodium   accusare   non   est  situs,   Sestius  was 

not  allowed  to  acciise  Clodius. 

b)  yrxdiGor,  I  am  seeti,  I  seem;  as, — 

videtur  comperisse,  he  seefns  to  have  discovered. 

c)  dicor,  putor,  exTstimor,  judicor  (in  all  persons)  ;  as,  — 
dicitur  in  Italiam  venisse,  he  is  said  to  have  cojne   into 

Italy ; 
Romulus  primus  rex  Romanorum  fuisse  putatur,  Romu- 
lus is  thought  to  have  been  the  first  king  of  the  Rojnans. 


NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB.   21 7 

d^    fertur,    feruntur,    traditur,    trSduntur    (only   in    the    third 
person)  ;  as,  — 

fertur  Homerus  caecus  fuisse,  Hojuer  is  said  to  have  been 

blind ; 
carmina  Archilochi  contumeliis  referta  esse  traduntur, 

Archilochus^s  poems  are  reported  to  have  been  full  of  abuse. 

Note.  —  In  compound  tenses  and  periphrastic  forms,  the  last  two  classes  of 
verbs,  c),  d),  more  commonly  take  the  impersonal  construction ;  as, — 
traditum  est  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,  ^ke  story  goes  that  Homer  was 
blind. 

Infinitive  with  Adjectives. 

333.  The  Infinitive  with  Adjectives  (except  paratus,  assuetus, 
etc.;  see  §  328,  i)  occurs  only  in  poetry  and  post- Augustan,  prose 
writers ;  as,  — 

contentus  demonstrasse,  contented  to  have  proved; 
audax  omnia  perpeti,  bold  for  enduring  everything. 

Infinitive  in  Exclamations. 

334.  The  Infinitive  is  used  in  Exclamations  implying  scorn.,  indig- 
nation., or  regret.  An  intensive  -ne  is  often  attached  to  some  word  in 
the  clause.     Examples  :  — 

huncine  solem  tam  nigrum  surrexe  mihi,  to  think  that  to-day''s  sun 

rose  with  such  evil  07nen  for  7ne  I 
sedere  totos  dies  in  villa,  to  stay  whole  days  at  the  villa. 

Historical  Infinitive. 

335.  The  Infinitive  is  often  used  in  historical  narrative  instead  of  the 
Imperfect  Indicative.     The  Subject  stands  in  the  Nominative  ;  as, — 
interim  cottidie  Caesar  Haeduos  frumentum  flagitare,  meanwhile 

Caesar  was  daily  demanding  grain  of  the  Haedui. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Tenses  of  the  Participle. 

336.  I.  The  tenses  of  the  Participle,  Hke  those  of  the 
Infinitive  (see  §  270),  express  time  not  absolutely,  but  with 
reference  to  the  verb  upon  which  the  Participle  depends. 


2l8  SYNTAX. 


2.  The  Present  Participle  denotes  action  contemporary  with  that  of 
the  verb.     Thus  :  — 

audio  te  loquentem  —you  are  speaking  and  I  hear  you ; 
audiebam  te  loquentem  =  you  were  speaking  and  I  heard  you ', 
audiam  te  loquentem  —you  will  be  speakirig  and  I  shall  hear  you. 
a.   The  Present  Participle  is  sometimes  employed  with  Conative 
force ;  as,  — 
assurgentem  regem  resupinat,  as  the  king  was  trying  to 
rise,  he  threw  hi7n  down. 

3.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  denotes  action  prior  to  that  of 
the  verb.     Thus  :  — 

locutus  taced  =  /  have  spoken  and  am  silent ; 
locutus  tacui  =  /  had  spoken  and  then  was  silent  ; 
locutus  tacebo  =  /  shall  speak  and  then  shall  be  silent. 

4.  The  absolute  time  of  the  action  of  a  participle,  therefore,  is 
determined  entirely  by  the  finite  verb  with  which  it  is  connected.. 

5.  Certain  Perfect  Passive  Participles  of  Deponent  and  Semi- 
Deponent  Verbs  are  used  as  Presents ;  viz.  arbitratus,  ausus,  ratus, 
gavisus,  solitus,  usus,  confisus,  diffisus,  seoutus,  veritus. 

Use  of  Participles. 

337.  As  an  Adjective  the  Participle  may  be  used  either 
as  an  attributive  or  predicate  modifier  of  a  Substantive. 

1.  Attributive  Use.  This  presents  no  special  peculiarities.  Ex- 
amples are :  — 

gloria  est  consentiens  laus  bonorum,  glory  is  the  unanimous  praise 

of  the  good ; 
Conon  muros  a  Lysandro  dirutos  reficit,  Conon  restored  the  walls 

destroyed  by  Lysander. 

2.  Predicate  Use.  Here  the  Participle  is  often  equivalent  to  a 
subordinate  clause.     Thus  the  Participle  may  denote  :  — 

a)    Time  ;  as, — 

omne  malum   nascens  facile   opprimitur,  every  evil  is 
easily  crushed  at  birth. 
b')   A  Condition  ;  as,  — 

mente  uti  non  possumus  cibo  et  potione  completi,  if 
gorged  with  food  and  drink.,  we  cannot  use  our  intellects. 


NOUN  AND   ADJECTIVE   FORMS   OF  THE  VERB.      219 

c)  Manner;  as, — 

Solon  senescere  se  dicebat  multa  in  dies  addiscentem, 

Solon  said  he  grew  old  learning  many  7iew  things  daily. 

d)  Means;  as, — 

sol  oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun,  by  its  rising,  makes  the 
day. 

e)  Opposition  (^ though^)  \  as, — 

mendaci  homini  ne  verum  quidem  dicenti  credimus, 
we  do  not  believe  a  liar,  though  he  speaks  the  truth. 
y)  Cause  ;  as,  — 

perfidiam    veritus    ad    suos    reoessit,    since  he  feared 
treachery,  he  returned  to  his  own  troops. 

3.  Video  and  audio,  besides  the  Infinitive,  take  the  Present  Par- 
ticiple in  the  Predicate  use  ;  as,  — 

video  te  fugientem,  I  see  you  fleeing, 
a.  So  frequently  facio,  flngo,  indtico,  etc.;  as, — 

eis  Catonem  respondentem  facimus,  we  represent  Cato  reply- 

ing  to  them  ; 
Homerus  Laertem   colentem  agrum  facit,  Homer  represents 
Laertes  tilling  the  field. 

4.  The  Future  Active  Participle  (except  futurus)  is  regularly  con- 
fined to  its  use  in  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  but  in  poets  and  later 
writers  it  is  used  independently,  especially  to  denote  purpose ;  as, — 

venerunt  castra  oppugnaturi,  they  came  to  assault  the  camp. 

5.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  is  often  equivalent  to  a  coordi- 
nate clause  ;  as,  — 

urbem  captam  diruit,  he  captured  and  destroyed  the  city  (lit.  he  de- 
stroyed the  city  captured) . 

6.  The  Perfect  Passive  Participle  in  combination  with  a  noun  is 
sometimes  equivalent  to  an  abstract  noun  with  a  dependent  Genitive ; 
as, — 

post  urbem  conditam,  after  the  founding  of  the  city ; 

Quinctius  defensus,  the  defense  of  Quinctius ; 

quibus  animus  occupatus,  the  preoccupation  of  the  mind  with  which. 

7.  Habeo  sometimes  takes  a  Perfect  Passive  Participle  in  the  Predi- 
cate construction  with  a  force  not  far  removed  from  that  of  the  Perfect 
or  Pluperfect  Indicative ;  as,  — 

equitatus  quem  coactum  habebat,  the  cavalry  which  he  had 
collected. 


220  SYNTAX. 


8.  The  Gerundive  denotes  obligation^  necessity,  etc.     Like  other  Par- 
ticiples it  may  be  used  either  as  Attributive  or  Predicate. 

a)  Less  frequently  as  Attributive.     Thus  :  — 
liber  legendus,  a  book  worth  reading; 

Igges  observandae,  laws  deserving  of  observance. 

b)  More  frequently  as  Predicate. 

i)  In  the  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugation  (amandus 
est,  etc.^.  In  this  use  Intransitive  Verbs  can  be  used  only 
impersonally,  but  admit  their  ordinary  case-construction 
(Gen.,  Dat.,  Abl.)  ;  as,— 
veniendum  est,  it  is  necessary  to  come ; 
obliviscendum  est  offensarum,  one  must  forget  injuries ; 
numquam  proditori  credendum  est,  you  mzist  never  trust 

a  traitor ; 
suo  cuique  uteiidum  est  judicio,  every  man  must  use  his 

own  judgment. 

2)  AitQX  euro,  provide  for ;  do,  tr ado,  giv J  over ;  relin- 
quo,  leave;  concede,  hand  over  j  and  some  other  verbs, 
instead  of  an  object  clause,  or  to  denote  purpose  ;  as,  — 
Caesar  ponteni  in  Arari  faciendum  curavit,  Caesar  pro- 
vided for  the  construction  of  a  bridge  over  the  Arar ; 
imperator  urbem  militibus  diripiendam  concessit,  the 
general  handed  over  the  city  to-  the  soldiers  to  plunder. 

9.  For  the  Gerundive  as  the  equivalent  of  the  Gerund,  see  §  339,  i . 

THE   GERUND. 
338.    As  a  verbal  noun  the  Gerund    admits  noun   con- 
structions as  follows  :  — 

I.    Genitive.     The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

a)  With   Nouns,    as   objective   or    Appositional   Genitive    (see 
§§  200,  202) ;  as,— 

cupiditas  dominandi,  desire  of  rulitig ; 
ars  scribendi,  the  art  of  writing. 

b)  With  Adjectives  ;  as,  — 

cupidus  audiendi,  desirous  of  hearing. 

c)  With  causa,  gratia  ;  as,  — 

discendi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  learning. 


NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB.   221 

2.  Dative.     The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

a)  With  Adjectives ;  as,  — 

aqua  utilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking. 

b)  With  Verbs  (rarely)  ;  as,  — 

adfui  scrlbendo,  I  was  present  at  the  writing. 

3.  Accusative.  The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  only  with 
Prepositions,  chiefly  ad  and  in  to  denote  purpose  ;  as,  — 

homo  ad  agendum  natus  est,  ?nan  is  born  for  action. 

4.  Ablative.     The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  — 

«)  Without  a  Preposition,  as  an  -Ablative  of  Means,  Cause,  etc. 

(see  §§  218,  219)  ;  as, — 

mens  discendo  alitur  et  cogitando,  the  7nind  is  notirished 
by  learning  and  reflection. 

Themistocles  maritimos  praedones  consectando  mare 
tutum  reddidit,  Themistocles  made  the  sea  safe  by  fol- 
lowing up  the  pirates. 

b)  After  the  prepositions  a,  de,  ex,  in;  as, — 

summa  voluptas  ex  discendo  capitur,  the  keenest  pleas- 
ure is  derived fro7ri  learning', 

multa  de  bene  beateque  vivendo  a  Platone  disputata 
sunt,  there  was  much  discussion  by  Plato  on  the  subject 
of  living  well  and  happily. 

5.  As  a  rule,  only  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  and  the  Ablative 
(without  a  preposition)  admit  a  Direct  Object. 

Gerundive  Construction  instead  of  the  Gerund. 

339.  I.  Instead  of  the  Genitive  or  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  with  a 
Direct  Object,  another  construction  may  be,  and  very  often  is,  used. 
This  consists  in  putting  the  Direct  Object  in  the  case  of  the  Gerund 
(Gen.  or  Abl.)  and  using  the  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  it.  This 
is  called  the  Gerundive  Construction.     Thus  :  — 

Gerund  Construction.  Gerundive  Construction. 

cupidus   urbem   videndT,  desirous 


-  ,,      .,  f  cupidus  urbis  videndae : 

of  seeing  the  city.  \ 

delector   oratores  legend©,  /  a7n  )  ^  _,  _  _   _  ., 

,  ,     v,7         7-^7  .        >^  delector  oratoribus  legendis. 

char  77ied  with  reading  the  orators.  \ 


222  SYNTAX. 


2.  The  Gerundive  Construction  must  be  used  to  avoid  a  Direct 
Object  with  the  Dative  of  the  Gerund,  or  with  a  case  dependent  upon 
a  Preposition  ;  as,  — 

locus  castris  muniendis  aptus,  a  place  adapted  to  fortifying  a  camp ; 
ad  pacem  pe  ten  dam  venerunt,  tkey  came  to  ask  peace ; 
xnultum  temporis  consumo  in  legendis  poetis,  /  spend  much  time . 
in  reading  the  poets. 

3.  In  order  to  avoid  ambiguity  (see  §  236,  2),  the  Gerundive  Con- 
struction must  not  be  employed  in  case  of  Neuter  Adjectives  used 
substantively.     Thus  regularly  — 

philosophi  cupidi  sunt  verum  investigandi,  philosophers  are  eager 
for  discovering  truth  (rarely  veri  investigandi)  ; 

studium  plura  cognoscendi,  a  desire  of  knowiiig  more  (not  plurium 
pognoscendorum) . 

4.  From  the  nature  of  the  case  only  Transitive  Verbs  can  be  used 
in  the  Gerundive  construction  ;  but  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior  (orig- 
inally transitive)  regularly  admit  it ;  as,  — 

hostes  in  spem  potiundorum  castrorum  venerant,  the  enemy  had 
conceived  the  hope  of  gaining  possession  of  the  camp. 

5.  The  Genitives  mei,  tui,  sui,  nostri,  vestri,  when  used  in  the 
Gerundive  Construction,  are  regularly  employed  without  reference  to 
Gender  or  Number,  since  they  were  originally  Neuter  Singular  Adjec- 
tives used  substantively.     Thus  :  — 

mulier  sui  servandi  causa  aufugit,  the  woTnan  fled  for  the  sake  of 

saving  herself] 
legati  in  castra  venerunt  sui  purgandi  causa,  the  envoys  came  into 

camp  for  the  purpose  of  clearing  the7ns  elves. 
So  nostri  servandi  causa,  yyr  the  sake  of  saving  ourselves. 

6.  Occasionally  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerundive  Construction  is  used 
to  denote /2^r/<9j<? ;  as, — 

quae  ille  cepit  legum  ac  libertatis  subvertundae,  which  he  under- 
took for  the  purpose  of  overthrowing  the  laws  and  liberty. 

7.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerundive  Construction  occurs  in  some  ex- 
pressions which  have  the  character  of  formulas  ;  as,  — 

decemviri  legibus  scribundis,   decemvirs  for  codifying  the  laws ; 
quindecimviri  sacris  faciundis,  quindecimvirs  for  performing  the 
sacrifices. 


COORDINATE   CONJUNCTIONS.  223 

THE   SUPINE. 

340.  I .  The  Supine  in  -um  is  used  after  Verbs  of  motion  to  express 
purpose ;  as,  — 

TegatI  ad  Caesarem  gratulatum  convenerunt,  envoys  came  to  Cae- 
sar to  congratulate  him. 

a.   The  Supine  in  -um  may  take  an  Object ;  as, — 

paceiu  petitum  oratores  Romam  mittunt,  they  send  en- 
voys to  Rome  to  ask  for  peace. 

.    b.    Note  the  phrase  :  — 

do  (colloco)  filiam  nuptum,  /  give  my  daughter  in  mar- 
riage. 

2.  The  Supine  in  -u  is  used  as  an  Ablative  of  Specification  with 
facilis,  diflBcilis,  incredibilis,  jucundus,  optimus,  etc. ;  also  with 
fas  est,  nefas  est,  opus  est ;  as,  — 

haec  res  est  facilis  cognitu,  this  thing  is  easy  to  learn ; 
^  hoc  est  optimum  factu,  this  is  best  to  do. 

a.  Only  a  few  Supines  in  -u  are  in  common  use,  chiefly  auditu, 
cognitu,  dictu,  factu,  visu. 

b.  The  Supine  in  -u  never  takes  an  Object. 


Chapter    VI. — Particles. 

COORDINATE    CONJUNCTIONS. 

341.   Copulative   Conjunctions.     These  join   one   word, 

phrase,  or  clause  to  another. 

/' 

I.    d)  et  simply  connects. 

^)  -que  joins  more  closely  than  et,  and  is  used  especially  where 
the  two  members  have  an  internal  connection  with  each 
other;  as, — 

parentes  liberique,  parents  and  children  ; 
cum  homines  aestu  febrique  jactantur,  when  people  are 
tossed  about  with  heat  and  fever. 


224  SYNTAX. 


c)  atque  (ac)  usually  emphasizes  the  second  of  the  two  things 
connected,  —  and  also,  and  indeed,  and  in  fact.  After  words 
of  likeness  and  difference,  atque  (ac)  has  the  force  of  as, 
than.     Thus :  — 

ego  idem  sentio  ac  tu,  I  think  the  same  as  you ; 
haud  aliter  ac,  not  otherwise  than, 
d)  neque  (nee)  means  and  not,  neither,  nor. 

\.  a)  -que  is  an  enclitic,  and  is  appended  always  to  the  second  of 
two  words  connected.  Where  it  connects  phrases  or  clauses, 
it  is  appended  to  the  first  word  of  the  second  clause  \  but 
when  the  first  word  of  the  second  clause  is  a  Preposition, 
-que  is  regularly  appended  to  the  next  following  word  ;  as, — 
ob  eamque  rem,  and  on  account  of  that  thing. 
b)  atque  is  used  before  vowels  and  consonants  ;  ac  never  before 

vowels,  and  seldom  before  c,  g,  qu. 
c")  et  non  is  used  for  neque  when  the  emphasis  of  the  negative 
rests  upon  a  special  word  ;  as,  — 
vetus  et  non  ignobilis  orator,  an  old  and  not  ignoble  orator. 

d)  For  and  nowhere,  and  never,  and  none,  the  Latin  regularly 
said  nee  usquam,  nee  umquam,  nee  ullus,  etc. 

3.  Correlatives.     Copulative    Conjunctions    are    frequently   used 
correlatively  ;  as, — 

et  .  .  .  et,  both  .  .  .  and ; 

neque  (nee)   .   .  .  neque  (nee),  neither  .  .  .  nor; 
cum  .   .   .  tum,  while  .  .   .  at  the  same  time ; 
tum  .   .   .  tum,  7iot  only  .   .   .  but  also. 

Less  frequently :  — 

et  .  .  .  neque ;  neque  .   .  .  et. 

a.  Note  that  the  Latin,  with  its  tendency  to  emphasize  antithetical  relations, 
often  uses  correlatives,  especially  et  .  .  .  et,  et  .  .  .  neque,  neque 
.  .  .  et,  where  the  English  employs  but  a  single  connective. 

4.  In  enumerations  — 

a)  The  different   members  of  a  series  may  follow  one  another 
without  connectives  (Asyndeton;  see  §  346).     Thus:  — 
ex  cupiditatibus  odia,  discidia,  discordiae,  seditiones, 
bella    nascuntur,   from    covetous    desires    spring   up 
hatred,  dissension,  discord,  sedition,  wars. 


COORDINATE   CONJUNCTIONS.  22$ 

b)  The  different  members  may  severally  be  connected  by  et 
(Polysyndeton).     Thus:  — 

horae  cedunt  et  dies  et  menses  et  anni,  hotirs  and  days 
and  months  and  years  pass  away. 

c)  The  connective  may  be  omitted  between  the  former  members, 
while  the  last  two  are  connected  by  -que  (rarely  et)  ;  as,  — 
Caesar  in  Carnutes,  Andes  Turonesque  legiones  dedu- 

cit,   Caesar  leads  his  legions  into  the  territory   of  the 
Carnutes^  Andes,  and  Turpnes. 

342.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  indicate  an  alternative, 

1.  «)  aut  must   be  used  when  the  alternatives  are   mutually  ex- 

clusive; as, — 

cita  mors  venit  aut  victoria  laeta,  {either^  swift  death  or 
glad  victory  comes. 
b)  vel,   -ve    (enclitic)    imply   a   choice   between    the    alterna- 
tives ;  as,  — 

qui  aether  vel  caelum  nominatur,  which  is  called  aether 
or  heaven. 

2.  Correlatives.     Disjunctive  Conjunctions  are  often  used  correla- 
tively;  as, — 

aut  .  .  .  aut,  either  .  .  .  or ; 
vel  .  .  .  vel,  either  .  .  .  or ; 
sive  .   .  .  sive,  if  ...  or  if  . 

343.  Adversative    Conjunctions.       These    denote    oppo- 
sition. 

I.   a^  sed,  but,  merely  denotes  opposition. 

^)  verum,  but^  is  stronger  than  sed,  but  is  less  frequently  used. 
^)  autem,  but  on  the  other  hand,  however,  marks  a  transition. 
It  is  always  post-positive. 
Definition.     A  post-positive  word  is  one  that  cannot  begin  a  sen- 
tence, but  is  placed  after  one  or  more  words. 

d)  at,  but,  is  used  especially  in   disputation,  to   introduce   an 

opposing  argument. 
^)  atqui  means  but  yet. 
/)  tamen,  yet,  usually  stands  after  the  emphatic  word,  but  not 

always. 
g)  vero,  however,  indeed,  in  truth,  is  always  post-positive. 


226  SYNTAX. 


2.    Note  the  correlative  expressions  :  — 
non  solum  (non  modo)   .   .  .  sed  etiam,  not  oiily  .  .  .  di^t  also  ; 
non  modo  non  .  .  .  sed   ne  .  .  .  quidem,  7tot  only  not ^  but  not 

even ;  as,  — 
non  modo  tibi  non  irascor,  sed  ne  reprehend©  quidem  factum 

tuum,  /  7iot  only  am  not  angry  with  you,  but  I  do  not  even  blame 

your  action. 

a.   But  when  the  sentence  has  but  one  verb,  and  this  stands  with  the  second 
member,  non  modo  may  be  used  for  non  modo  non;  as, — 
adsentatio  non  modo  amico,  sed  ne  libero  quidem  digna 
est,  fiattery  is  not  only  not  worthy  of  a  friend,  but  not  even  of  a 
free  man. 

344.  Illative  Conjunctions.  These  represent  the  state- 
ment which  they  introduce  as  following  from  or  as  in  con- 
formity with  what  has  preceded. 

1 .  d)  itaque  =  and  so,  accordingly. 

b)  ergo  —  therefore,  accordingly. 

c)  igitur  (regularly  post-positive  ^)  =  therefore,  accordingly, 

2.  Igitur  is  never  combined  with  et,  atque,  -que,  or  neque. 

345.  Causal  Conjunctions.  These  denote  cause,  or  give 
an  explanation.  They  are  nam,  namque,  enim  (post-positive), 
etenim,  for. 

346.  Asyndeton.  The  conjunction  is  sometimes  omitted  be- 
tween coordinate  members,  particularly  in  lively  or  impassioned 
narration.     Thus :  — 

^)  A  copulative  Conjunction  is  omitted  ;  as,  — 

avaritia    infinlta,    insatiabilis    est,   avarice   is  boiindless 

{and)  insatiable; 
Cn.  Pompejo,  M.  Crasso  consulibus,  in  the  consulship  of 

Gnaeus  Pompey  {and)  Marcus  Crassus. 
The  conjunction  is  regularly  omitted  between  the  names  of 
consuls  when  the  praenomen  {Marcus,  Gdius,  etc.)  is  expressed. 
b)  An  Adversative  Conjunction  may  be  omitted;  as,  — 

rationes  defuerunt,  ubertas  orationis  non  defuit,  a^'gu- 
ments  were  lacking,  {but)  abundance  of  wSrds  was  not. 


1  Except  in  Sallust  and  Silver  Latin. 


ADVERBS.  —  WORD-ORDER.  227 

ADVERBS. 

347.    I.    The  following  particles,  sometimes   classed  as 
Conjunctions,  are  more  properly  Adverbs  :  — 

etiam,  also,  even. 

quoque  (always  post-positive),  also. 

quidem  (always  post-positive)  lays  stress  upon  the  preceding  word. 

It  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  English  indeed,  in  fact,  but 

more  frequently  cannot  be  rendered,  except  by  vocal  emphasis. 
ne  .  .  .  quidem  means  not  even ;  the  emphatic  word  or  phrase  always 

stands  between ;  as,  ne  ille  quidem,  not  even  he. 
tamen  and  vero,  in  addition  to  their  use  as  Conjunctions,  are  often 

employed  as  Adverbs. 
2.  Negatives.  Two  negatives  are  regularly  equivalent  to  an 
affirmative  as  in  English,  as  non  nullT,  some ;  but  when  non,  nemo, 
nihil,  numquam,  etc.,  are  accompanied  by  neque  .  .  .  neque,  non 
.  .  .  non,  non  modo,  or  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  the  latter  particles  simply 
take  up  the  negation  and  emphasize  it;  as, — 
habeo  hio  neminem  neque  amioum  neque  cognatum,  /  /lave  here 

no  one,  7i either  frietid  nor  relative. 
non  enim  praetereundum  est  ne  id  quidem,  y^r  not  even  that  must 

be  passed  by. 

a.  Haud  in  Cicero  and  Caesar  occurs  almost  exclusively  as  a  modifier 
of  Adjectives  and  Adverbs,  and  in  the  phrase  haud  sci6  an.  Later 
writers  use  it  freely  with  verbs. 


Chapter    VII. —  Word-order  and  Sentence- 
Structure. 

A.    .WORD-ORDER. 

348.  In  the  normal  arrangement  of  the  Latin  sentence 
the  Subject  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the 
Predicate  at  the  end  ;  as,  — 

Darius    classem  qumgentarum   navium  comparavit,  Darius  got 
ready  a  fleet  of  five  hundred  ships. 


228  SYNTAX. 


349.  But  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  the  normal  arrange- 
ment is  often  abandoned,  and  the  emphatic  word  is  put 
at  the  beginning,  less  frequently  at  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  as,  — 

magnus  in  hoc  bello  Themistocles  fuit,  great  was  Themistocles  in 

this  war ; 
aliud  iter  habemus  nullum,  other  course  we  hav.e  none. 

SPECIAL   PRINCIPLES. 

350.  I.  Nouns.  A  Genitive  or  other  oblique  case  regularly  fol- 
lows the  word  upon  which  it  depends.     Thus  :  — 

a)  Depending  upon  a  Noun :  — 

tribunus  plebis,  tribune  of  the  plebs ; 

filius  regis,  son  of  the  king', 

vir  magni  animi,  a  man  of  noble  spirit. 

Yet  always  senatus  oonsultum,  plebis  scitum. 
^)  Depending  upon  an  Adjective  :  — 

ignarus  rerum,  ignorant- of  affairs ; 
digni  amioitia,  worthy  of  friendship ; 
plus  aequo,  more  than  {what  is)  fair. 

2.  Appositives.  An  Appositive  regularly  follows  its  Subject; 
as, — 

Philippus,  rex  Macedonum,  Philip,  king  of  the  Macedonians ; 
adsentatio,  vitiorum  2i6.\vitr1yL,  flattery,  promoter  of  evils. 

Yet  flumen   Rhenus,  the  River  Rhine;   and   always  in  good  prose 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  Ro?ne. 

3.  The  Vocative  usually  follows  one  or  more  words  ;  as, — 

audi,  Caesar,  hear,  Caesar  I 

4.  Adjectives.  No  general  law  can  .be  laid  down  for  the  posi- 
tion of  Adjectives.  On  the  whole  they  precede  the  noun  oftener 
than  they  follow  it. 

a.    Adjectives  of  quantity  (including  numerals)    regularly  pre- 
cede their  noun  ;  as,  — 

omnes  homines,  all  men  ; 

septingentae  naves,  seven  hundred  vessels. 


WORD-ORDER.  229 


b.  Note  the  force  of  position  in  the  following :  — 
media  urbs,  the  middle  of  the  city  ; 

urbs  media,  the  middle  city ; 
extremum  bellum,  the  end  of  the  war ; 
bellum  extremum,  the  last  war. 

c.  Romanus  and  Latinus  regularly  follow  ;  as,  — 

senatus    populusque    Romanus,  the  Ro?nan  Senate  and 

People; 
ludi  Romani,  the  Roman  games ; 
feriae  Latinae,  the  Latin  holidays. 

d.  When  a  Noun  is  modified  both  by  an  Adjective  and  by  a  Geni- 
tive, a  favorite  order  is  :  Adjective,  Genitive,  Noun  ;  as,  — 
summa    omnium    rerum  abundantia,  the  greatest  abun- 
dance of  all  things. 

Pronouns. 

a.  The    Demonstrative,  Relative,   and    Interrogative  Pronouns 
regularly  precede  the  Noun  ;  as,  — 

hic  homo,  this  man  ; 
ille  homo,  that  man  ; 
erant  duo  itinera,  quibus  itineribus,  etc. ,  there  were  two 

routes^  by  which,  etc. 
qui  hom5  ?  what  sort  of  man  f 

b.  But   ille  in  the  sense  of  *  that  well  known,''  ^  that  famous^ 
usually  stands  after  its  Noun  ;  as, — 

testula  ilia,  that  well-known  custom  of  ostracis?n ; 
Medea  ilia,  that  famous  Medea. 

c.  Possessive   and    Indefinite    Pronouns    usually   follow    their 
Noun ;  as,  — 

pater  meMs,  my  father ; 
homo  quidam,  a  certain  man ; 
mulier  aliqua,  some  woman. 

But  for  purposes  of  contrast  the  Possessive  often  precedes 

its  Noun  ;  as,  — 

mens  pater,  my  father  (i.e.  as  opposed  to  yours,  his,  etc.). 

d.  Where  two  or  more  Pronouns  occur  in  the  same  sentence, 
the  Latin  is  fond  of  putting  them  in  close  proximity  ;  as,  — 
nisi  forte  ego  vobTs  cessare  videor,  unless  perchance  I 

seem  to  you  to  be  doing  nothing. 


230  SYNTAX. 


6.  Adverbs  and  Adverbial  phrases  regularly  precede  the  word  they 
modify ;  as,  — 

valde  diligens,  extre7nely  diligent ; 

saepe  dixi,  /  /lave  often  said ; 

te  jam  diu  hortamur,  we  have  long  been  urging  you; 

paulo  post,  a  little  after. 

7.  Prepositions  regularly  precede  the  words  they  govern. 

a.  But  limiting  words  often  intervene  between  the  Preposition 
and  its  case  ;  as,  — 

de  communi  hominum  memoria,  concerning  the  common 

memory  of  men ; 
ad  beate  vivendum,  for  living  happily. 

b.  When  a  noun  is  modified  by  an  Adjective,  the  Adjective  is 
often  placed  before  the  preposition  ;  as,  — 

magno  in  dolore,  in  great  grief] 
summa  cum  laude,  with  the  highest  credit ; 
qua  de  causa,  for  which  cause ; 
banc  ob  rem,  on  account  of  this  thing. 

c.  For  Anastrophe,  by  which  a  Preposition  is  put  after  its  case,  see  §  144,  3. 

8.  Conjunctions.  Autem,  enim,  and  igitur  regularly  stand  in 
the  second  place  in  the  sentence,  but  when  combmed  with  est  or  sunt 
they  often  stand  third ;  as,  — 

ita  est  enim,  for  so  it  is. 

9.  Words  or  Phrases  referring  to  the  preceding  sentence  or  to  some 
part  of  it,  regularly  stand  first ;  as,  — 

id  ut  audlvit,  Corcyram  demigravit,  when  he  heard  that  (referring 
to  the  contents  of  the  preceding  sentence),  he  moved  to  Corcyra ; 

eo  cum  Caesar  venisset,  timentes  confirmat,  when  Caesar  had 
come  thither  (i.e.  to  the  place  just  mentioned),  he  encouraged  the 
timid. 

10.   The  Latin  has  a  fondness  for  putting  side  by  side  words  which 

are  etymologically  related  ;  as,  — 

ut  ad  senem  senex  de  senectute,  sic  hoc  libro  ad  amicum 
amicissimus  de  amicitia  scrips!,  as  /,  an  old  man.,  wrote  to 
an  old  man.,  on  old  age.,  so  in  this  book.,  as  a  fond  friend,  I  have 
written  to  a  friend.,  concerning  friendship. 


\ 


WORD-ORDER.  23 1 


11.  Special   rhetorical    devices    for    indicating    emphasis    are    the 
following :  — 

a)  Hyp^rbaton,  which  consists  in  the  separation  of  words  that 
regularly  stand  together  ;  as,  — 

Septimus  mihi  Originum  liber  est  in  manibus,  the 
seventh  book  of  my  ^  Origines ''  is  under  way ; 

recepto  Caesar  Orico  projBciscitur,  having  recovered 
Orictis,  Caesar  set  out. 

b)  Anaphora,  which  consists  in. the  repetition  of  the  same  word 
or  the  same  word-order  in  successive  phrases  ;  as,  — 

sed  pleni  omnes  sunt  libri,  plenae  sapientium  voces, 
plena  exemplorum  vetustas,  but  all  books  are  full  of 
it,  the  voices  of  sages  are  full  of  it,  antiquity  is  fidl  of 
examples  of  it. 

c)  Chiasmus,!  which  consists  in  changing  the  relative  order 
of  words  in  two  antithetical  phrases  ;  as,  — 

multos  defend!,  laesi  neminem,  many  have  I  defended,  I 

have  injured  no  one  ; 
horribilem   ilium    diem    aliis,  nobis   faustum,  that  day 

dreadful  to  others,  for  us  forttmate. 

d)  Synchysis,  or  the  interlocked  arrangement.  This  is  mostly 
confined  to  poetry,  yet  occurs  in  rhetorical  prose,  especially 
that  of  the  Imperial  Period  ;  as,  — 

simulatam  Pompejanarum  gratiam  partium,  pretended 
interest  in  the  Pojnpeian  party. 

12.  Metrical  Close.     At  the  end  of  a  sentence  certain  cadences 
were  avoided  ;  others  were  much  employed.     Thus  :  — 

^)  Cadences  avoided. 

\j  \j w   ;        as,  esse  videtur  (close  of  hexameter). 

www;  as,  esse  potest  (close  of  pentameter). 

^)   Cadences  frequently  employed. 

—  \j  —  \  as,  auxerant. 

\j \j  '.  as,  comprobavit. 

www  w   ;   as,  esse  videatur. 

w w ;         as,  rogatu  tuo. 

1  So  named  from  a  fancied  analogy  to  the  strokes   of  the  Greek  letter  X  [chi\ 
Thus :  multos    laesI 

X 

defend!    neminem 


232  SYNTAX. 


B.    SENTENCE-STRUCTURE. 

351.  I.  Unity  of  Subject.  —  In  complex  sentences  the  Latin 
regularly  holds  to  unity  of  Subject  in  the  different  members ;  as,  — 
Caesar  primum  sud,  deinde  omnium  ex  conspeotu  remotis 
equis,  ut  aequato  periculo  spem  fugae  tolleret,  cohor- 
tatus  suos  proelium  commisit,  Caesar  having  first  rejnoved 
his  own  horse  from  sight,  then  the  horses  of  all,  in  order,  by 
making  the  danger  equal,  to  take  away  hope  of  flight,  encouraged 
his  men  and  joined  battle. 

2.  A  word  serving  as  the  common   Subject  or  Object  of  the  main 
clause  and  a  subordinate  one,  stands  before  both  ;  as,  — 

Haedui   cum  se   defendere  non  possent,  legatos  ad   Caesarem 

mittunt,  since  the  Haedui  could  not  defend  thonselves^  they  sent 

envoys  to  Caesar ; 
ille  etsi  flagrabat  bellandi  cupiditate,  tamen  paci  serviendum 

putavit,  although  he  was  burning  with  a  desire  to  fight,  yet  he 

thought  he  ought  to  aim  at  peace. 

a.   The  same  is  true  also 

i)    When    the    Subject    of   the    main   clause  is    Object 
(Direct  or  Indirect)  of  a  subordinate  clause;  as, — 
Caesar,  cum  hoc  ei  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  ab  urbe 
proficisci,  when  this  had  been  reported  to   Caesar  he 
hastened  to  set  out  from  the  city. 

2)  When  the  Subject  of  a  subordinate  clause  is  at  the 
same  time  the  Object  *  (Direct  or  Indirect)  of  the  main 
clause ;  as,  — 

L.  Manlio,  cum  dictator  fuisset,  M.  Pomponius  tri- 
bunus  plebis  diem  dixit,  M.  Po7nponius,  tribune  of 
the  people,  instituted  proceedings  against  Lucius  Man- 
lius,  though  he  had  been  dictator. 

3.  Of  subordinate   clauses,   temporal,  conditional,  and   adversative 
clauses   more  commonly  precede  the  main  clause ;  indirect  questions 
and  clauses  of  purpose  or  result  more  commonly  follow  ;  as,  — 
postquam  haec  dixit,  profectus  est,  after  he  said  this,  he  set  out ; 
si  quis  ita  agat,  imprudens  sit,  if  any  one  should  act  so,  he  would 

be  devoid  of  foresight ; 
accidit   ut  una  nocte  omnes  Hermae  deicerentur,  it  happened 
that  in  a  single  night  all  the  Hermae  were  thrown  down. 


SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.— HINTS   ON   STYLE.      233 

4.  Sometimes  in  Latin  the  main  verb  is  placed  within  the  sub- 
ordinate clause ;  as,  — 

SI  quid  est  in  me  ingeni,  quod  sentio  quam  sit  exiguum,  if  there 
is  any  talent  in  7ne^  and  I  know  how  little  it  is. 

5.  The  Latin  Period.  The  term  Period,  when  strictly  used, 
designates  a  compound  sentence  in  which  the  subordinate  clauses  are 
inserted  within  the  main  clause ;  as,  — 

Caesar  etsi  intellegebat  qua  de  causa  ea  dicerentur,  tamen,  ne 
aestatem  in  Treveris  consumere  cogeretur,  Indutiomarum 
ad  se  venire  jussit,  though  Caesar  perceived  why  this  was 
saidy  yet,  lest  he  should  be  forced  to  spend  the  su7nmer  among 
the  Treveri,  he  ordered  Indutiomarus  to  come  to  hint. 

In  the  Periodic  structure  the  thought  is  suspended  until  the  end  of 
the  sentence  is  reached.  Many  Roman  writers  were  extremely  fond  of 
this  sentence-structure,  and  it  was  well  adapted  to  the  inflectional 
character  of  their  language  ;  in  English  we  generally  avoid  it. 

6.  When  there  are  several  subordinate  clauses  in  one  Period,  the 
Latin  so  arranges  them  as  to  avoid  a  succession  of  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

At  Irostes  cum  misissent,  qui,  quae  in  castris  gererentur,  cog- 
noscerent,  ubi  se  deceptos  intellexerunt,  omnibus  copiis 
subsecuti  ad  flumen  contendunt,  but  the  enemy  when  they 
had  sent  men  to  learn  what  was  going  on  in  camp,  after  dis- 
covering that  they  had  been  outwitted,  followed  with  all  their 
forces  and  hurried  to  the  river. 


Chapter  VIII.  —  Hints  on  Latin  Style, 

352.  In  this  chapter  brief  consideration  is  given  to 
a  few  features  of  Latin  diction  which  belong  rather  to 
style  than  to  formal  grammar. 

NOUNS. 

353.  I.  Where  a  distinct  reference  to  several  persons  or  things  is 
involved,  the  Latin  is  frequently  much  more  exact  in  the  use  of  the 
Plural  than  is  the  English  ;  as,  — 


234  SYNTAX. 


domos  eunt,  they  go  home  {i.e.  to  their  homes); 
Germani  corpora  curant,  the  Germans  care  for  the  body  ; 
animos  militum  recreat,  he  renews  the  courage  of  the  soldiers  ; 
dies  noctesque  timere,  to  be  in  a  state  of  fear  day  and  night. 

2.  In  case  of  Neuter  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively, 
the  Latin  often  employs  the  Plural  where  the  English  uses  the  Singu- 
lar; as, — 

omnia  sunt  perdita,  everything  is  lost ; 

quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  this  is  so ; 

haec  omnibus  pervulgata  sunt,  this  is  very  well  known  to  all. 

3.  The  Latin  is  usually  7nore  concrete  than  the  English,  and  espe- 
cially less  bold  in  the  personification  of  abstract  qualities.     Thus  :  — 

a  puero,  a  pueris,/r^^2  boyhood; 

Sulla  dictatore,  in  Sitlld^s  dictatorship ; 

me  duce,  under  my  leadership ; 

Roman!  cum  Carthaginiensibus  pacem  fecerunt  =  /^ome  made 
peace  with  Carthage ; 

liber  doctrinae  plenus  =  a  learned  book ; 

prudentia  Themistoclis  Graecia  servata  est  =  Themist ode s''s  fore- 
sight saved  Greece. 

4.  The  Nouns  of  Agency  in  -tor  and  -sor  (see  §  147  i)  denote  a 
permanent  or  characteristic  activity ;  as,  — 

accusatores  (professional)  accusers; 

oratores,  pleaders ; 

cantores,  singers ; 

Arminius,  Germaniae  liberator,  Arminius,  liberator  of  Germany. 

a.  To   denote  single  instances  of  an   action,  other  expressions  are 
commonly  employed ;  as, — 

Numa,  qui  Romulo  successit,  Numa,  successor  of  Romulus  ; 
qui  mea  legunt,  my  readers  ; 
qui  me  audiunt,  my  auditors. 

5.  The  Latin  avoids  the  use  of  prepositional  phrases  as  modifiers  of 
a  Noun.  In  English  we  say  :  '  The  war  against  Carthage ' ;  *  a  journey 
through  GauV ;  ^cities  on  the  sea"* ;  '•the  book  in  my  hands'' ;  '' the  fight 
at  Salamis"* ;  etc.  The  Latin  in  such  cases  usually  employs  anpther 
mode  of  expression.     Thus  :  — 

a)  A  Genitive ;  as,  — 

dolor  injuriarum,  resentment  at  injuries. 


HINTS  ON  STYLE.  235 

b)  An  Adjective ;  as,  — 

urbes  maritimae,  cities  on  the  sea ; 
pugna  Salaminia,  the  fight  at  Salamis. 

c)  A  Participle  ;  as,  — 

pugna  ad  Cannas  facta,  the  battle  at  Ca7tnae, 

d)  A  Relative  clause  ;  as,  — 

liber  qui  in  meis  manibus  est,  the  book  in  my  hands. 

Note. — Yet  within  certain  limits  the  Latin  does  employ  Prepo- 
sitional phrases  as  Noun  modifiers.  This  is  particularly  frequent 
when  the  governing  noun  is  derived  from  a  verb.  The  following  are 
typical  examples :  — 

transitu.^  in  Britanniam,  the  passage  to  Britain  ; 
excessus  e  vita,  departure  from  life; 
odium  erga  Romanes,  hatred  of  the  Romans  ; 
•  liber  de  senectute,  the  book  on  old  age ; 
amor  in  patriam,  love  for  one'^s  country, 

ADJECTIVES. 

354.  I.  Special  Latin  Equivalents  for  English  Adjec- 
tives are — 

a)  A  Genitive  ;  as,  — 

virtutes  animi  =  moral  virtues ; 
dolores  corporis  =  bodily  ills. 

b)  An  Abstract  Noun  ;  as,  — 

no  vitas  rei  =  the  strange  circumstance ;  ' 
asperitas  viarum  =  rough  roads. 

c)  Hendiadys  (see  §  374,  4)  ;  as,  — 
ratio  et  ordo  =  syste^natic  order ; 
ardor  et  impetus  =  eager  onset. 

d)  Sometimes  an  Adverb  ;  as,  — 

omnes  circa  populi,  all  the  surrounding  tribes ; 
suos  semper  hostes,  their  perpetual  foes. 

2.  Often  a  Latin  Noun  is  equivalent  to  an  English  Noun  modified 
by  an  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

doctrina,  theoretical  knowledge ;  priidentia,  practical  knowledge ; 

oppidum,  walled  town ;  libellus,  little  book. 


236  SYNTAX. 


3.  Adjectives  are  not  Used  in  immediate  agreement  with  proper 
names ;  but  an  Adjective  may  limit  vir,  homo,  ille,  or  some  other 
v^'ord  used  as  an  Appositive  of  a  proper  name ;  as,  — 

Socrates,  homo  sapiens  =  the  wise  Socrates; 
Scipio,  vir  f ortissimus  =  the  doughty  Scipio ; 
Syracusae,  urbs  praeclarissima  =■  famous  Syracuse. 

4.  An  Adjective  may  be  equivalent  to  a  Possessive  or  Subjective 
Genitive ;  as,  -^ 

pastor  regius,  the  shepherd  of  the  king-, 
tumultus  servilis,  the  uprising  of  the  slaves. 

PRONOUNS. 

355.  I.  In  Compound  Sentences  the  Relative  Pronoun  has  a  fond- 
ness for  connecting  itself  with  the  subordinate  clause  rather  than  the 
main  one  ;  as,  — 

a  quo  cum  quaereretur,  quid  maxime  expediret,  respondit,  when 
it  was  asked  of  him  what  was  best,  he  replied.  (Less  commonly, 
qui,  cum  ab  e5  quaereretur,  respondit.) 

2.  Uterque,  ambo.  Uterque  means  each  of  two ;  amb5  means 
both ;  as,  — 

uterque  f rater  abiit,  each  of  the  two  brothers   departed   {i.e.   sepa- 
rately) ; 
ambd  fratres  abierunt,  i.e.  the  two  brothers  departed  together. 
a.    The  Plural  of  uterque  occurs  — 

i)  With  Nouns  used  only  in  the  Plural  (see  §  56)  ;  as, — 
in  utrisque  castris,  in  each  camp. 

2)  Where  there  is  a  distinct   reference  to  two  groups  of 
persons  or  things  ;  as,  — 

utrlque  duces  clari  fuerunt,  the  generals  on  each  side  (sev- 
eral in  number)  were  fajuous. 

VERBS. 

356.  I.  In  case  of  Defective  and  Deponent  Verbs,  a  Passive  is 
supplied :  — 

a)  By  the   corresponding   verbal   Nouns   in  combination  with 
etc;  as, — 

in  odio  sumus,  we  are  hated; 
in  invidia  sum,  /  am  envied ; 


HINTS  ON  STYLE.  237 

admirationi  est,  he  is  admired; 

oblivione   obruitur,  he  is  forgotten  (lit.  is  overwhelmed  by 

oblivion) ; 
in  usu  esse,  to  be  used, 
b)  By  the  Passive  of  Verbs  of  related  meaning.     Thus  :  — 
agit&ri  as  Passive  of  persequi ; 
temptari  as  Passive  of  adoriri. 

2.  The  lack  of  the  Perfect  Active  Participle  in  Latin  is  supplied  — 

a)  Sometimes   by  the  Perfect   Passive   Participle   of  the   Depo- 
nent; as, — 

adhortatus,  having  exhorted ; 
veritus,  having  feared . 

b)  By  the  Ablative  Absolute ;  as,  — 

hostium  agris  vastatis  Caesar  exercitum  reduxit,  hav- 
ing ravaged  the  country  of  the  ene7ny,  Caesar  led  back 
his  army. 

c)  By  subordinate  clauses  ;  as,  — 

eo  cum  advenisset,  castra  posuit,  having  arrived  there, 

he  pitched  a  camp  ; 
hostes  qui  in  urbem  irriiperant,  the  enemy  having  burst 

into  the  city. 

3.  The  Latin  agrees  with  Enghsh  in  the  stylistic  employment  of 
the  Second  Person  Singular  in  an  indefinite  sense  {=^one'').  Cf. 
the  English  '  Voti  can  drive  a  horse  to  water,  but  you  can't  make  him 
drink.''  But  in  Latin  this  use  is  mainly  confined  to  certain  varieties  of 
the  Subjunctive,  especially  the  Potential  (§  280),  Jussive  (§  275),  De- 
liberative (§  277),  and  the  Subjunctive  in  conditional  sentences  of  the 
sort  included  under  §  302,  2,  and  303.     Examples  :  — 

videres,  you  could  see ; 

utare  viribus,  use  your  strength  ; 

quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  with  this  man  ? 

mens  quoque  et  animus,  nisi  tamquam  lumini  oleum  instilles, 
exstinguuntur  senectute,  the  intellect  and  mind  too  are  ex- 
tinguished by  old  age.,  unless,  so  to  speak,  you  keep  pouring  oil 
into  the  lamp  ; 

tanto  amore  possessiones  suas  amplexi  tenebant,  ut  ab  eis 
membra  divelli  citius  posse  diceres,  they  clung  to  their 
possessions  with  such  an  affectionate  embrace,  that  you  would  have 
said  their  limbs  could  sooner  be  torn  from  their  bodies. 


238  SYNTAX. 


PECULIARITIES   IN   THE   USE   OF   THE   ACCUSATIVE. 

357.  I.  To  denote  ^ so  jnany yea?'s,  etc.,  afterwards  or  before''  the 
Latin  employs  not  merely  the  Ablative  of  Degree  of  Difference  with 
post  and  ante  (see  §  223),  but  has  other  forms  of  expression.  Thus  :  — 
post^quinque  a.ma.os,fve  years  afterward ; 

paucos  ante  -dies,'  a  few  days  before; 

ante  c^2idix\BVi\\Y\xva.,  four  years  before] 

post  diem  quartum  quam  ab  urbe  discesseranius,y^z^r  days  after 

we  had  left  the  city ; 
ante  tertium  annum  quam  decesserat,  three  years  before  he  had 

died. 

2.  The  Latin  seldom  combines  both  Subject  and  Object  with  the 
same  Infinitive  ;  as,  — 

R5mands  Hannibalem  vioisse  constat. 

Such  a  sentence  would  be  ambiguous,  and  might  mean  either  that  the 
Romans  had  conquered  Hannibal,  or  that  Hannibal  had  conquered  the 
Romans.  Perspicuity  was  gained  by  the  use  of  the  Passive  Infini- 
tive ;  as,  — 

Romanes  ab  Hannibale  victos  esse  constat,  //  is  well  established 
that  the  Romans  were  defeated  by  Hannibal. 

PECULIARITIES    IN    CONNECTION    -WITH    THE    USE   OF 
THE  DATIVE. 

358.  I .  The  English  for  does  not  always  correspond  to  a  Dative 
notion  in  Latin,  but  is  often  the  equivalent  of  pro  with  the  Ablative, 
viz.  in  the  senses  — 

a)  In  defense  of;  as,  — 

pro  patria  mori,  to  die  for  one''s  coufttry. 

b)  Instead  of  in  behalf  of',  as,  — 

unus  pro  omnibus  dixit,  one  spoke  for  all; 
haec  pro  lege  dicta  sunt,  these  things  were  said  for  the 
law. 

c)  In  proportion  to ;  as,  — 

pro  multitudine  hominum  eorum  fines  erant  angusti, 

for  the  population,  their  territory  was  small. 


HINTS  ON  STYLE.  239 

2.  Similarly,  English  to  when  it  indicates  motion  is  rendered  in 
Latin  by  ad. 

a.  Note,  however,  that  the  Latin  may  say  either  scribere  ad 
aliquem,  or  scribere  alicui,  according  as  the  idea  of  motion 
is  or  is  not  predominant.     So  in  several  similar  expressions. 

3.  In  the  poets,  verbs  of  mingling  with,  contending  with,  joini^tg, 
dingiftg  to,  etc.,  sometimes  take  the  Dative.  This  construction  is  a 
Grecism.     Thus :  — 

se  miscet  viris,  he  mingles  with  the  7nen ; 
contendis  Homero,  you  contend  with  Homer  ; 
dextrae  dextram  jungere,  to  clasp  hand  with  hand. 

PECULIARITIES    IN   THE  USE   OF   THE   GENITIVE. 

359.    I.    The  Possessive  Genitive  gives  emphasis  to  the  possessor, 
the  Dative  of  Possessor  emphasizes  the  fact  of  possession ;  as, — 
hortus  patris  est,  the  garden  is  7ny  father'' s  ', 
mihi  hortus  est,  I  possess  a  garden. 

2.    The  Latin  can  say  either  stulti  or  stultum  est  dicere,  //  is 

foolish  to  say;  but  Adjectives  of  one  ending  permit  only  the  Geni- 
tive ;  as,  — 

sapientis  est  haec  secum  reputare,  it  is  the  part  of  a  wise  man  to 
consider  this. 


Part    VI. 


PROSODY. 


360.  Prosody  treats  of  metres  and  versification. 

361.  Latin  Verse.  Latin  Poetry  was  essentially  different 
in  character  from  English.  In  our  own  language,  poetry  is 
based  upon  accent,  and  poetical  form  consists  essentially  in 
a  certain  succession  of  accented  and  tmaccented  syllables. 
Latin  poetry,  on  the  other  hand,  was  based  not  upon 
accent,  but  upon  quantity,  so  that  with  the  Romans  poeti- 
cal form  consisted  in  a  certain  succession  of  long  and  short 
syllables,  i.e.  of  long  and  short  intervals  of  time. 

This  fundamental  difference  in  the  character  of  English 
and  Latin  poetry  is  a  natural  result  of  the  difference  in 
character  of  the  two  languages.  English  is  a  strongly 
accented  language,  in  which  quantity  is  relatively  subordi- 
nate. Latin,  on  the  other  hand,  was  a  quantitative  lan- 
guage, in  which  accent  was  relatively  subordinate. 

QUANTITY    OF   VOWELS   AND    SYLLABLES. 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

362.  The  general  principles  for  the  quantity  of  vowels 
and  syllables  have  been  given  above  in  §  5.  The  following 
peculiarities  are  to  be  noted  here  :  — 

I.  A  vowel  is  usually  short  when  followed  by  another  vowel 
(§  5.  A.  2),  but  the  following  exceptions  occur:  — 

240 


QUANTITY  OF  VOWELS  AND   SYLLABLES.         241 

a)  In  the  Genitive  termination  -ius  (except  alterius)  ;  as,  illius, 
totius.     Yet  the  i  may  be  short  in  poetry  ;  as,  illius,  totius. 

b)  In  the  Genitive  and  Dative  Singular  of  the  Fifth  Declension ; 
as,  diei,  aciei.     But  fidSi,  rei,  sp6i  (§  52,  i). 

c)  In  fio,  excepting  fit  and  forms  where  i  is  followed  by  er. 
Thus  :  fiebam,  fiat,  fiunt ;  but  fieri,  fierem. 

^)  In   a  few   other   words,   especially  words   derived  from  the 
Greek ;  as,  dius,  Aeneas,  Darius,  heroes,  etc. 

2.  A  diphthong  is  usually  long  (§5.  B.  2),  but  the  preposition 
prae  in  composition  is  often  shortened  before  a  vowel ;  as,  praeacutus. 

3.  A  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  consonants 
(§5.  B.  2)  is  long,  even  when  one  of  the  consonants  is  in  the  follow- 
ing word;  as,  terret  populum.  Occasionally  the  syllable  is  long 
when  both  consonants  are  in  the  following  word ;  as,  pro  segete 
spicas. 

4.  Compounds  of  jacio,  though  written  inicit,  adicit,  etc.,  have  the 
first  syllable  long,  as  though  written  inj-,  adj-. 

5.  Before  j,  S  and  e  made  a  long  syllable,  e.g.  in  major,  pejor, 
ejus,  ejusdem,  Pompejus,  rejecit,  etc.  These  were  pronounced, 
mai-jor,  pei-jor,  ei-jus,  Pompei-jus,  rei-jecit,  etc.  So  also  some- 
times before  i,  e.g.  Pompe-i,  pronounced  Pompei-i;  re-ici6,  pro- 
nounced rei-icio. 

Quantity  of  Final  Syllables. 

A.   Final  Syllables  ending  in  a  Vowel. 
363.    I.    Final  a  is  mostly  short,  but  is  long  :  — 

^)  In  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the  First  Declension ;  as,  porta. 
^)  In  the  Imperative  ;  as,  lauda. 

^)   In  indeclinable  words   (except  itS,  quiS)  ;  as,  triginta,  con- 
tra, postea,  interea,  etc. 
2.    Final  e  is  usually  short,  but  is  long  :  — 

^)  In  the  Ablative  Singular  of  the  Fifth  Declension ;    as,  die, 
re ;    hence  hodie,  quare.     Here  belongs  also  fame   (§  59. 
2.  b). 
^)  In  the  Imperative  of  the   Second  Conjugation ;   as,  mone, 
hab^,  etc. ;  yet  occasionally  cavS,  valS. 

c)  In  Adverbs  derived  from  Adjectives  of  the  Second  Declen- 
sion, along  with  fere  and  ferme.  Beng,  malg,  temerg, 
saepg  have  §. 

d)  In  e,  de,  me,  te,  se,  ne  (not,  lest),  ne  (verily). 


242  PROSODY. 


3.  P'inal  i  is  usually  long,  but  is  short  in  nisi  and  quasi.  Mihi, 
tibi,  sibi,  ibi,  ubi,  have  regularly  i,  but  sometimes  i ;  yet  always 
ibidem,  ibique,  ubique. 

4.  Final  o  is  regularly  long,  but  is  short :  — 

a)  In  eg6,  du6,  modo  {only'),  cit6. 

b)  Rarely  in  the  First  Person  Singular  of  the  Verb,  and  in 
Nominatives  of  the  Third  Declension  ;  as,  am6,  le6. 

c)  In  a  few  compounds  beginning  with  thfe  Preposition  pro, 
especially  before  f ;  as  pr6fundere,  pr6ficisci,  pr6fugere. 

5.  Final  u  is  always  long. 

B.   Final  Syllables  ending  in  a  Consonant. 
364.    I.    Final  syllables  ending  in  any  other  consonant  than  s  are 
short.     The  following  words,  however,  have  a  long  vowel :   sal,  sol, 
Lar,  par,  ver,  fur,    die,  due,  en,  non,  quin,  sin,  sie,  eur.     Also 
the  adverbs  hie,  illie,  istie.^ 

2.  Final  syllables  in  -as  are  long;  as,  terras,  amas. 

3.  Final  syllables  in  -es  are  regularly  long,  but  are  short :  — 

a)  In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  dental  stems 
(§  33)  of  the  Third  Declension  which  have  a  short  penult  in 
the  Genitive ;  as,  seges  (segetis),  obsSs  (obsidis),  milgs, 
divgs.     But  a  few  have  -es  ;  viz.  pes,  aries,  abies,  paries. 

b)  In  gs  {thou  art),  pen6s. 

4.  Final  -os  is  usually  long,  but  short  in  6s  (ossis),  eomp5s,  imp6s. 

5.  Final  -is  is  usually  short,  but  is  long  :  — 

a)  In  Plurals;  as,  portis,  liortis,  nobis,  vobis,  nubis  (Ace). 

b)  In  the  Second  Person  Singular  Perfect  Subjunctive  Active ; 
as,  amaveris,  monueris,  audiveris,  etc.  Yet  occasional 
exceptions  occur. 

c)  In  the  Second  Person  Singular  Present  Indicative  Active  of 
the  Fourth  Conjugation  ;  as,  audis. 

^)  In  vis,  force ;  is,  t/iou  goest ;  fis  ;  sis  ;  velis  ;  n51is  ;  vis, 
thou  wilt  (mavis,  quamvis,  quivis,  etc.). 

6.  Final  -us  is  usually  short,  but  is  long :  — 

a)  In  the  Genitive  Singular  and  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Plural  of  the  Fourth  Declension  ;  as,  fruetus. 

1  The  pronouns  hie,  hoc,  and  the  adverb  hue,  probably  had  a  short  vowel. 
The  syllable  was  made  long  by  pronouncing  hicc,  hocc,  etc. 


VERSE-STRUCTURE.  243 

^)  In  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  those  nouns  of 
the  Third  Declension  in  which  the  u  belongs  to  the  stem ; 
as,  palus  (-udis),  servitus  (-utis),  tellus  (-uris). 

365.  Greek  Nouns  retain  in  Latin  their  original  quantity ;  as, 
Aenea,  epitome,  Delos,  Pallas,  Simois,  Salamis,  Didus,  Paridi, 
aer,  aether,  crater,  heroes.  Yet  Greek  nouns  in  -wp  (-or)  regularly 
shorten  the  vowel  of  the  final  syllable  ;  as,  rhetdr,  Heot6r. 

VERSE-STRUCTURE. 

GENERAL   PRINCIPLES. 

366.  I.  The  metrical  unit  in  versification  is  a  short  syllable,  tech- 
nically called  a  mora  (w)-  A  long  syllable  ( )  is  regarded  as  equiva- 
lent to  two  morae. 

2.  A  Foot  is  a  group  of  syllables.  The  following  are  the  most 
important  kinds  of  fundamental  feet :  — 

Feet  of  Three  Morae.  Feet  of  Four  Morae. 

_  ^     Trochee.                            _  w  w     Dactyl, 
w Iambus.  >^  ^ Anapaest. 

3.  A  Verse  is  a  succession  of  feet. 

4.  The  different  kinds  of  verses  are  named  Trochaic,  Iambic,  Dac- 
tylic, Anapaestic,  according  to  the  foot  which  forms  the  basis  of  their 
structure. 

5.  Ictus.  In  every  fundamental  foot  the  long  syllable  naturally  re- 
ceives the  greater  prominence.  This  prominence  is  called  ictus. ^  It 
is  denoted  thus  :  Z.  ^  w  ;  Z.  w 

6.  Thesis  and  Arsis.  The  syllable  which  receives  the  ictus  is 
called  the  thesis ;  the  rest  of  the  foot  is  called  the  arsis. 

7.  Elision.  Final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel,  a  diphthong,  or  -m 
are  regularly  elided  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h.  In 
reading,  we  omit  the  elided  syllable  entirely.  This  may  be  indicated 
as  follows  :  corpor®  in  uno  ;  mult""^  ille  et ;  raonstr""*  horrendum  ; 
causae  irarum. 

a.  Omission  of  elision  is  called  Hiatus.     It  occurs  especially  before  and 
after  monosyllabic  interjections ;  as,  O  et  praesidium. 


1  Ictus  was  not  accent,  —  neither  stress  accent  nor  musical  accent,  —  but  was 
simply  the  quantitative  prominence  inherent  in  the  long  syllables  oi  fundamental 
feet. 


244  PROSODY. 


8.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  is  called  a  Caesilra  {cutting). 
Every  verse  usually  has  one  prominent  caesura.  The  ending  of  a  word 
and  foot  together  within  the  verse  is  called  a  diaeresis. 

9.  Verses  are  distinguished  as  Catalectic  or  Acatalectic.  A  Cata- 
lectic  verse  is  one  in  which  the  last  foot  is  not  complete,  but  lacks  one 
or  more  syllables  ;  an  Acatalectic  verse  has  its  last  foot  complete. 

10.  At  the  end  of  a  verse  a  slight  pause  occurred.  Hence  the  final 
syllable  may  be  either  long  or  short  (syllaba  anceps),  and  may 
terminate  in  a  vowel  or  m,  even  though  the  next  verse  begins  with  a 
vowel. 

1 1 .  Iambic,  Trochaic,  and  Anapaestic  verses  are  further  designated 
as  dimeter,  trimeter,  tetrameter,  according  to  the  number  of  dipodies 
(pairs  of  feet)  which  they  contain.  Dactylic  verses  are  measured  by 
single  feet ^  and  are  designated  as  tetrameter,  pentameter,  hexameter, 
accordingly. 

SPECIAL   PECULIARITIES. 

367.    I.    Syniz^sis  (Synadresis).     Two  successive  vowels  in  the 
interior  of  a  word  are  often  united  into  a  long  syllable  ;  as,  — 
aureis,  deinde,  anteire  deesse. 

2.  Diastole.     A  syllable  usually  short  is  sometimes  long ;  as, — 

videt,  audit. 

3.  Systole.     A  syllable  usually  long  is  sometimes  short ;  as, — 

stetgrunt. 
a.    Diastole  and  Systole  are  not  mere  arbitrary  processes.     They 
usually  represent  an  earlier  pronunciation  which  had  passed 
out  of  vogue  in  the  ordinary  speech. 

4.  After  a  consonant,  i  and  u  sometimes  become  j  and  v.  The 
preceding  syllable  then  becomes  long ;  as,  — 

abjete  for  abiete  ;  genva  for  genua. 

5.  Sometimes  V  becomes  u  ;  as, — 

silua  for  silva  ;  dissoluo  for  dissolve. 

6.  Sometimes  a  verse  has  an  extra  syllable.  Such  a  verse  is  called 
an  Hyp^rmeter.  The  extra  syllable  ends  in  a  vowel  or  -m,  and  is 
united  with  the  initial  vowel  or  h  of  the  next  verse  by  Synaphdia. 
Thus :  — 

ignari  hominumque  locorum^"® 

erramus. 


VERSE-STRUCTURE.  245 


7.  Tmesis  {cutting).  Compound  words  are  occasionally  separated 
into  their  elements  ;  as,  — 

quo  me  cumque  rapit  tempestas,  for  quocumque,  etc. 

8.  Syncope.     A  short  vowel  is  sometimes  dropped  between  two 

consonants ;  as,  — 

repostus  for  repositus. 

THE   DACTYLIC   HEXAMETER. 

368.  I.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter,  or  Heroic  Verse, 
consists  theoretically  of  six  dactyls.     But  in  all  the  feet 

except  the  fifth,  a  spondee  ( )  may  take  the  place  of 

the  dactyl.  The  sixth  foot  may  be  either  a  spondee  or  a 
trochee,  since  the  final  syllable  of  a  verse  may  be  either 
long  or  short  (syilaba  anoeps).  The  following  represents 
the  scheme  of  the  verse :  — 

2.  Sometimes  we  find  a  spondee  in  the  fifth  foot.  Such  verses  are 
called  Spondaic.  A  dactyl  usually  stands  in  the  fourth  place,  and  the 
fifth  and  sixth  feet  are  generally  made  up  of  a  quadrisyllable  ;  as,  — 

armatum<»"e  auro  circumspicit  Oriona. 

cara  deum  suboles,  magnum  Jovis  incrementum. 

3.  Caesura. 

a)  The  favorite  position  of  the  caesura  in  the  Dactylic  Hexam- 
eter is  after  the  thesis  of  the  third  foot ;  as,  — . 

arma  virumque  cano  ||  Trojae  qui  primus  ab  oris. 

b)  Less  frequently  the  caesura  occurs  after  the  thesis  of  the 
fourth  foot,  usually  accompanied  by  another  in  the  second 
foot ;  as,  — 

inde  toro  ||  pater  Aeneas  |1  sic  orsus  ab  alt"  est. 

c)  Sometimes  the  caesura  occurs  between  the  two  short  syl- 
lables of  the  third  foot ;  as,  — 

O  passi  graviora  j|  dabit  deus  his  quoque  finem. 

This  caesura  is  called  Feminine,  as  opposed  to  the  caesura 
after  a  long  syllable,  which  is  called  Masculine  (as  under 
a  and  b). 


246  PROSODY. 


d)  A  pause  sometimes  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot. 
This  is  called  the  Bucolic  Diaeresis,  as  it  was  borrowed  by 
the  Romans  from  the  Bucolic  poetry  of  the  Greeks.     Thus ;  — 

sdlstitium  pecori  defendite  ;   ||  jam  venit  aestas. 

DACTYLIC   PENTAMETER. 

369.  I.  The  Dactylic  Pentameter  consists  of  two  parts, 
each  of  which  contains  two  dactyls,  followed  by  a  long 
syllable.  Spondees  may  take  the  place  of  the  dactyls 
in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the  second.  The  long  syllable 
at  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  verse  always  ends  a 
word.     The  scheme  is  the  following :  — 

jL  00  Z.  00  Z-WZ.  WW  Z-  WW  5-d 

2.  The  Pentameter  is  never  used  alone,  but  only  in  connection  with 
the  Hexameter.  The  two  arranged  alternately  form  the  so-called  Ele- 
giac Distich.     Thus :  — 

Vergilium  vidi  tantum,  nee  amara  TibuUo 
Tempus  amicitiae  fata  dedSre  meae. 

IAMBIC   MEASURES. 

370.  I.  The  most  important  Iambic  verse  is  the  Iambic 
Trimeter  (§  366.  II ),  called  also  Senarius.  This  is  an  acata- 
lectic  verse.     It  consists  of  six  Iambi.     Its  pure  form  is  :  — 

V^  W  \J  W  W ^  — 

Beatus  ille  qui  prooul  negotiis. 
The  Caesura  usually  occurs  in  the  third  foot ;    less  fre- 
quently in  the  fourth. 

2.  In  place  of  the  Iambus,  a  Tribrach  (w  \j  \j)  may  stand  in  any 
foot  but  the  last.  In  the  odd  feet  (first,  third,  and  fifth)  may  stand  a 
Spondee,  Dactyl,  or  Anapaest,  though  the  last  two  are  less  frequent. 
Sometimes  a  Proceleusmatic  (w  w  w  v^)  occurs. 

3.  In  the  Latin  comic  writers,  Plautus  and  Terence,  great  free- 
dom is  permitted,  and  the  various  equivalents  of  the  Iambus,  viz. 
the  Dactyl,  Anapaest,  Spondee,  Tribrach,  Proceleusmatic,  are  freely 
admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 


SUPPLEMENTS    TO    THE    GRAMMAR. 


I.   JULIAN   CALENDAR. 

371.  I.  The  names  of  the  Roman  months  are  :  Januarius,  Februa- 
rius,  Martius,  Aprilis,  Majus,  Junius,  Julius  (Quintilis  ^  prior  to 
46  B.C.),  Augustus  (Sextilisi  before  the  Empire),  September,  Octo- 
ber, November,  December.  These  words  are  properly  Adjectives 
in  agreement  with  mensis  understood. 

2.  Dates  were  reckoned  from  three  points  in  the  month  :  — 

a)  The  Calends,  the  first  of  the  month. 

b)  The  Nones,  usually  the  fifth  of  the  month,  but  the  seventh 
in  March,  May,  July,  and  October. 

c)  The  Ides,  usually  the   thirteenth  of  the  month,  but  the   fif- 
teenth in  March,  May,  July,  and  October. 

3.  From  these  points  dates  were  reckoned  backward;  consequently 
all  days  after  the  Ides  of  any  month  were  reckoned  as  so  many  days 
before  the  Calends  of  the  month  next  following. 

4.  The  day  before  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides  of  any  month  is 
designated  as  pridie  Kalendas,  Nonas,  Idus.  The  second  day  be- , 
fore  was  designated  as  die  tertio  ante  Kalendas  N5nas,  etc.  Simi- 
larly the  third  day  before  was  designated  as  die  quarto,  and  so  on. 
These  designations  are  arithmetically  inaccurate,  but  the  Romans 
reckoned  both  ends  of  the  series.  The  Roman  numeral  indicating  the 
date  is  therefore  always  larger  by  one  than  the  actual  number  of  days 
before  Nones,  Ides,  or  Calends. 

5.  In  indicating  dates,  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form 
of  an  Adjective  agreeing  with  Kalendas,  Nonas,  Idus.  Various  forms 
of  expression  occur,  of  which  that  given  under  d)  is  most  common :  — 

a)  die  quinto  ante  Idus  Martias ; 

b)  quinto  ante  Idus  Martias  ; 

c)  quinto  (V)  Idus  Martias  ; 

d^  ante  diem  quintum  Idus  Martias. 

1  Originally  the  Roman  year  began  with  March.  This  explains  the  names 
Quintilis,  Sextilis,  September,  etc.,  fifth  month,  sixth  month,  etc. 

247 


248 


SUPPLEMENTS   TO  THE   GRAMMAR. 


6.  These  designations  may  be  treated  as  nouns  and  combined  with 
the  prepositions  in,  ad,  ex ;  as,  — 

ad  ante  diem  IV  Kalendas  Octobres,  up  to  the  2Zth  of  September. 
ex  ante  diem  quintum  Idas  Octobres, /r^?;/  the  nth  of  October. 

7.  In  leap-year  the  25th  was  reckoned  as  the  extra  day  in  February. 
The  24th  was  designated  as  ante  diem  VI  Kalendas  Martias,  and 
the  25th  as  ante  diem  bis  VI  Kal  Mart. 


372. 


CALENDAR. 


Days 
of  the 
month. 

March,  May,  July, 

January,  August, 

April,  June,  Sep- 

February. 

October. 

December. 

tember,  November. 

1 

KalendTs. 

KalendTs. 

Kalendis. 

Kalendis. 

2 

VI.        Nonas. 

IV         Nonas. 

IV        Nonas. 

IV.        Nonas. 

3 

V. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

4 

IV 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

5 

III. 

NONIS. 

NONlS. 

NONIS. 

6 

Pridie  Nonas. 

VIII.      Idus. 

VIII.      Idus. 

VIII.       Idus. 

7 

NonTs. 

VII. 

VII. 

VII. 

8 

VIII.      Idus. 

VI. 

VI. 

VI. 

9 

VII. 

V. 

V. 

V. 

10 

VI. 

IV. 

IV. 

IV. 

11 

V. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

12 

IV. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

13 

III.      _       " 

Idibus. 

Tdibus. 

Idibus. 

14 

Pridie  Idus. 

XIX.    Kalend. 

XVIII.   Kalend. 

XVI.       Kalend. 

IS 

Idibus.  • 

XVIII.      " 

XVII. 

XV. 

16 

XVII.     Kalend. 

XVII.       " 

XVI. 

XIV. 

17 

XVI. 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIII. 

18 

XV. 

XV. 

XIV. 

XII. 

19 

XIV 

XIV. 

XIII. 

XI. 

20 

XIII. 

XIII. 

XII. 

X. 

21 

XII. 

XII. 

XI. 

IX. 

22 

XI. 

XI. 

X. 

VIII. 

23 

X. 

X. 

IX. 

VII. 

24 

IX. 

IX. 

VIII. 

VI. 

25 

VIII. 

VIII. 

VII. 

V.  (bis  VI.)" 

26 

VII. 

VII. 

VI. 

IV.    (V.)     " 

27 

VI. 

VI. 

V. 

III.  (IV.)    " 

28 

V. 

V. 

IV. 

Prid.  Kal.  (Ill  Kal.) 

29 

IV. 

IV. 

III. 

(Prid.  Kal.) 

30 

III. 

III. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

(Enclosed  forms  are 

31 

Pridie  Kalend. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

for  leap-year.) 

FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX.  249 

II.    PROPER   NAMES. 

373.  I.  The  name  of  a  Roman  citizen  regularly  consisted  of  three 
parts  :  the  praenomen  (or  given  name),  the  nomen  (name  of  the  gens 
or  clan),  and  the  cognomen  (family  name) .  Such  a  typical  name  is 
exemplied  by  Marcus  TuUius  Cicero,  in  which  Marcus  is  the  prae- 
nomen, Tullius'  the  nomen,  and  Cicero  the  cognomen.  Sometimes 
3.  second  cognomen  (in  later  Latin  called  an  agnomen)  is  added  — 
rixpecially  in  honor  of  military  achievements  ;  as,  — 

Gaius  Cornelius  Scipio  Africanus. 

2.   Abbreviations  of  Proper  Names. 

A.  =  Aulus.  Mam.  =  Mamercus. 

App.  =  Appius.  N.  =  Numerius. 

C.  =  Gains.  P.  =  Publius. 
Cn.  =  Gnaeus.  Q.  =  Quintus. 

D.  =  Decimus.  Sex.  =  Sextus. 
K.  =  Kaeso.  Ser.  =  Servius. 
L.  —  Lucius.  Sp.  =  Spurius. 
M.  =  Marcus.  T.  =  Titus. 
M\  =  Manius.  Ti.  =  Tiberius. 

III.    FIGURES   OF   SYNTAX   AND    RHETORIC. 
A.    Figures  of  Syntax. 

374.  I.   Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  ;  as,  — 
quid  multa,  why  {should  I  say)  much  f 

2.    Brachvlogy  is  a  brief  or  condensed  form  of  expression ;  as, — 
ut  ager  sine  cultura  fructuosus  esse  non  potest,  sic  sine  doc- 
trina  animus,  as  a  field  cannot  be  prodiictive  without  cultiva- 
tion^ so  the  mi7id  {cannot  be  productive)  without  learning. 

Special  varieties  of  Brachylogy  are  — 

a)  Zeugma,  in  which  one  verb  is  made  to  stand  for  two ;  as,  — 
minis  aut  blandimentis  corrupta  =  {terrified)  by  threats 

or  corrupted  by  flattery. 

b)  Compendiary    Comparison,  by  which   a   modifier   of  an 
object  is  mentioned  instead  of  the  object  itself;  as, — 
dissimilis  erat  Chares  eorum  et  factis  et  moribus,  lit. 

Chares  was  different  from  their  conduct  and  character^ 
i.e.  Chares's  conduct  and  character  were  different,  etc. 


2SO         FIGURES   OF   SYNTAX  AND   RHETORIC. 

3.  Pleonasm  is  an  unnecessary  fullness  of  expression  ;  as, — 

prius  praedicam,  lit.  I  will  first  say  in  advance. 

4.  Hendfadys  (ev  8ta  Svoti/,  otie  through  two)  is  the  use  of  two 
nouns  joined  by  a  conjunction,  in  the  sense  of  a  noun  modified  by  a 
Genitive  or  an  Adjective  ;  as,  — 

f  ebris  et  aestus,  the  heat  of  fever ; 
celeritate  cursuque,  dy  swift  rtinning. 

5.  Proldpsis,  or  Anticipation,  is  the  introduction  of  an  epithet 
in  advance  of  the  action  which  makes  it  appropriate  ;  as,  — 
submersas   obrue   puppes,   lit.   overwhelm   their  submerged,  ships, 

i.e.  overwhelm  and  sink  their  ships. 

a.   The  name  Prolepsis  is  also  applied  to  the  introduction  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun  as  object  of  the  main  clause  where  we  should  expect 
it  to  stand  as  subject  of  a  subordinate  clause.     Thus  :  — 
nosti  Marcellum  quam  tardus  sit,  yoit  know  how  slow 

Marcellus  is  (lit. you  know  Marcellus,  how  slow  he  is). 
Both  varieties  of  Prolepsis  are  chiefly  confined  to  poetry. 

6.  Anacoliithon  is  a  lack  of  grammatical  consistency  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence  ;  as,  — 

turn  Anci  filii  .  .  .  impensius  eis  indignitas  crescere,  then  the  sons 
of  Ancus  .  .  .  their  indignation  increased  all  the  more. 

7.  Hysteron  Prdteron  consists  in  the  inversion  of  the  natural 
order  of  two  words  or  phrases  ;  as,  — 

moriamur  et  in  media  arma  ruamus  =  let  us  rush  into  the  midst  of 
arms  and  die. 

B.   Figures  of  Rhetoric. 
375.     I.   Litotes  (literally  softening)  is  the  expression  of  an  ide?< 
by  the  denial  of  its  opposite ;  as,  — 

haud  parum  laboris,  no  little  toil  (i.e.  much  toil)  ; 
non  ignoro,  I  am  not  ignorant  (i.e.  I  am  well  aware). 

2.  Oxym6ron  is  the  combination  of  contradictory  conceptions; 
as,  —  sapiens  insania,  wise  folly. 

3.  Alliteration  is  the  employment  of  a  succession  of  words 
presenting  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  letter  (mostly  initial) ; 
as, —  sensim  sine  sensu  aetas  senescit. 

4.  Onomatopoeia  is  the  suiting  of  sound  to  sense ;  as,  — 
quadrupedante  putrem  sonitu  quatit  ungula  campum,  <- And  shake 

with  horny  hoofs  the  solid  ground. "^ 


INDEX  OF  THE   SOURCES   OF  THE   H^LUSTRATIVE 
EXAMPLES    CITED   IN   THE   SYNTAX.^ 


p.  1 1 8,  nonne  videtis,  Sest.  47. 

num  exspectas,  Phil,  ii,  86. 

videsne,  Vatin.  30. 

sensistine,  Cat.  i,  8. 

a  rebus,  de  Sen.  15. 
p.  119,  visne  locum,  Leg.  ii,  i. 

estisne,  Liv.  i,  38,  2. 

jam  ea,  Ter.  Phor.  525. 

estne  f rater,  Ter.  Ad.  569. 
p.  120,  decorum  est,  Hor.  Od.  iii,  2,  13. 

opportune  accidit,  AU.  i,  17,  2. 

Numa,  Eut.  i,  3. 
p.  121,  philosophia,  Tj^sc.  Disp.  ii,  16. 

assentatio,  Lael.  89. 

Corinthi,  Tac.  H.  n,  i. 
p.  122,  audi  tu,  Livy,  i,  24. 

nate,  mea,  ^e».  i,  664. 

rumor  est,  Ter.  And.  185. 
p.  123,  galeam,  Aen.  ii,  392. 

cinctus,  Ov.  Am.  iii,  9,  61. 

nodo  sinus,  Aen.  i,  320. 
p.  124,  idem  gloriari,  de  Sen.  32. 

eadem  peccat,  N.  D.  i,  51. 

multa  egeo.  Cell,  xiii,  24. 

multum  valet,  Hor.  Epp.  i,  6,  52. 

nihil  peccat,  Stat.  161. 

minitantem  vana,  Sil.  i,  306. 

acerba  tuens,  Lucr.  v,  33. 

dulce loquentem,  Hor. Od.  i,  22, 24. 

multum  sunt,  B.  G.  iv,  i,  8. 

servitutem,  PI.  Pers.  34  a. 

vitam,  Ter.  Ad.  859. 

stadimn,  Off.  iii,  10,  42. 

Olympia,  de  Sen.  14. 
p.  125,  pisds.  Sen.  N.  Q.  iii,  18,  2. 

orationes.  Brut.  82. 

homines.  Rose.  Am.  101. 

otium,  Hor.  Od.  ii,  16,  i. 

me  duas,  Att.  ii,  7,  i. 
p.  126,  te  litteras.  Pis.  73. 

hoc  te,  Ter.  Hec.  766, 

me  id,  PI.  Tr.  96. 


non  te,  Fam.  ii,  16,  3. 

omnes  artes,  Liv.  25,  37, 

rogatus,  de  Dom.  16. 

multa,  iV.  D.  ii,  166. 

milites,  5.  C.  i,  54. 
p.  127,  tremit,  Lucr.  iii,  489. 

nuda,  Aen.  i,  320. 

manus,  ylew.  ii,  57. 

hie  locus,  B.  G.\,  49. 

in  domum,  Ac.'i,  13, 
p.  128,  Thalam,  Sail.  Jug.  75,  i. 

Thurios  in,  Nep.  Ale.  4. 

cum  Acen,  Nep.  Dat.  5. 

Italiam  venit,  Aen.  i,  2. 
p.  130,  amicis.  Sail.  C.  16,  4. 

Orgetorix,  jB.  G.  i,  2. 
p.  131,  munitioni,  B.  G.  i,  10. 

mihi  ante,  Verr.  v,  123. 

illi,  Tac.  Ag.  9. 

intercludere,  PI.  M.  G.  223. 

oppidum,  B.  C.  iii,  80. 

tu  mihi,  Verr.  3,  213. 

quid  mihi,  Hor.  Epp.  i,  3,  15. 
p.  132,  erit  ille,  Eel.  i,  7. 

quae  ista,  Par.  41. 

honorem,  Verr.  iv,  25. 

Caesar,  Div.  ii,  79. 

scintillam,  Aen.  i,  174. 

disputatio,  Tusc.  Disp.  ii,  2. 

honesta,  0^.  iii,  38. 
p.  133,  castris,  B.  G.  vii,  16. 

legiones,  B.  C.  ii,  22. 

receptui,  B.  G.  vii,  47. 

fortunae,  Fam.  vi,  5,  i. 

quibus,  Flac.  19. 

hos  tibi,  Nep.  Paus.  2. 

me  gerendo,  Liv.  i,  23. 

noxiae.  Leg.  iii,  11. 
p.  134,  it  clamor,  Aen.  v,  451. 

dum  Latio,  Aen.  i,  6. 
p.  137,  magni,  Nep.  Cat.  i,  2. 

tantae  moUs,  Aen.  i,  33. 


1  For  explanation  of  the  abbreviations,  see  p.  257. 
251 


252 


INDEX  TO   THE   EXAMPLES. 


p- 139, 


p.  140, 
p.  141, 


p.  142, 


p.  143, 


p.  138,  viri,  Tusc.  Disp.  ii,  43. 

memoria,  Or.  54. 

Epicuri,  F.  y,  3. 

praeteritorum,  Div.  i,  63. 

nomina,  PL  Poen.  1062. 

reminiscere,  B.  G.i,  13. 

reminiscens,  Nep.  Ale.  6. 

mihi  patriae,  SuU.  19. 

te  veteris,  ad  Her.  iv,  24,  33. 

me  admones,  ad  Att.  v,  i,  3. 

pecuniae,  Place.  43. 

miseremini,  Verr.  i,  72. 

desine,  Hor.  Od.  ii,  9,  17. 

operum,  Hor.  Od.  iii,  17,  16. 

curis,  Marc.  34. 

Caesar,  5.  G.  5,  51. 

caret,  Hor.  Sat.  i,  3,  66. 

urbem,  A^e^.  Thras.  i. 

abstinere,  P/iw.  £^^.  i,  12,  9 

hostes,  5.  G.  i,  i,  4. 

praedones,  Verr.  iv,  144. 

dissentio,  Plane.  9. 

secernantur,  Ca/.  i,  32. 

ab  Ulixe,  Liv.  i,  49,  9. 

a  fortuna,  5.  G.  v,  34,  2. 

a  multitudine,  5.  G.  iii,  2,  i. 
p.  144,  melle  dulcior,  de  Sen.  31. 

patria,  Cat.  i,  27. 

amplius,  B.  G.  vii,  15,  i. 

opinione,  5.  G.  ii,  3,  i. 

munere,  Aen.  vi,  885. 

carne.  Sail.  Jug.  89. 

castris,  5.  G.  ii,  26,  4. 

opus  est  properato.  Mil.  49. 
p.  14s,  nititur,  Aen.  vi,  760. 

nervis,  N.  D.  ii,  59. 

mortali,  Luer.  v,  65. 

quid  hoc,  Sest.  29. 

quid  mea,  Fam.  xiv,  4,  3. 

fossas,  B.  G.  iii,  18. 

vinum,  Juv.  vii,  121. 
p.  146,  militibus,  B.  G.i,  %,  i. 

victoria,  B.  G.  i,  14,  4. 

natura  loci,  B.  G.  iii,  9,  3. 
p.  147,  nulla  est,  Brut.  164. 

exstinguitur,  Tae.  A.  ii,  72. 

longo,  Aen.  v,  320. 

cum  febri,  de  Or.  iii,  6. 

improbitas,  de  Or.  ii,  237. 

aer  calore,  N.  D.  ii,  27. 

assuetus,  de  Or.  iii,  58. 
p.  148,  puella,  PL  Mere.  13. 

vir  singulari,  PL  Vid.  41. 


sunt  specie,  B.  G.  vi,  28,  i. 

scopulis,  Aen.  i,  166. 

Helvetii,  B.  G.  i,  2,  2. 

me  dignor,  Aen.  i,  335. 
p.  149,  Cn.  Pompeio,  B.  G.  iv,  i. 

omnes  virtutes.  Fin.  ii,  117. 

perditis,  Fam.  vi,  i,  4. 

nullo  adversante,  Tae.  A.  i,  2. 

passis  palmis,  B.  C.  iii,  98. 

audito  eum,  Liv.  xxviii,  7. 
p.  150,  stant  litore,  Aen.  vi,  901. 
p.  151,  a  Gergovia,  B.  G.  vii,  59,  i. 

Stella,  N.  D.  ii,  52. 

biennio,  Tae.  Agr.  14. 
p.  153,  prima  et,  Tae.  ^.  i,  37. 

omnium  rerum,  Fam.  vi,  21,  1. 

eadem  alacritas,  B.  G.  iv,  24,  4. 

res  operae,  B.  G.v,  11,  5. 

stultitia,  F.  iii,  39. 
p.  154,  domus,  uxor,  Ter.  And.  891. 

pars.  Sail.  Jug.  14,  15. 
p.  156,  senectus,  de  Sen.  55. 

exercitus,  Livy,  xxxix,  i. 
p.  157,  virtus,  Lael.  100. 
p.  158,  me  oravit,  Phil,  ii,  45. 

me  oraverunt,  Div.  Caee.  2. 

suum  genium,  Tae.  Dial.  9. 
p.  159,  Hannibalem,  Sest.  142. 

suus  quemque.  Rose.  Am.  67. 

Belgae,  B.  G.  ii,  i,  i. 

Galli,  B.  G.  vi,  8,  i. 

Themistocles,  Nep.  Them.  9. 

illud  intellego.  Sail.  Jug.  85,  5. 

hie  est,  PL  Tr.  697. 
p.  160,  Maximum,  de  Sen.  10. 

non  is  sum,  B.  G.v,  30,  2. 

non  suspicabatur,  Verr.  i,  36. 

vincula,  Cat.  iv,  7. 

quod  idem,  ^c.  ii,  52. 

bonus  vir,  Lael.  65. 
p.  161,  ipso  terrore,  B.  G.  iv,  33,  i. 

valvae  se,  Div.  i,  74. 

Persae,  Nep.  Ale.  5. 

ea  molestissime,  Q.  Fr.  i,  i,  2. 
p.  162,  career  quae,  Verr.  v,  143. 

Belgae,  B.  G.  ii,  i,  i. 

nostra  qui.  Cat.  i,  7. 

servili,  B.  G.  i,  40. 

erant,  B.  G.  i,  6, 

quam    quisque,    Tuse.    Disp. 
41. 

non  longe,  B.  G.  i,  10,  i. 

Themistocles,  Nep.  Them.  4,  3. 


INDEX  TO  THE  EXAMPLES. 


253 


P-   163, 
p.   164, 


P-   165, 
p.   166, 


p.   167, 


p.   168, 
p.   169, 


p.   170, 


p.   171, 
p.   172, 


p.   173, 


P-   174, 
P-   17s, 


P-   177, 


p.   178, 


numqwam  digne,  de  Sen.  2. 

cognatio,  Arch.  2. 

mors  est,  Tusc.  Disp.  i,  27. 

justitia,  F.  i,  50. 

si  quisquam,  Lael.  9.  • 

potestne,  Tusc.  Disp.  iv,  54. 

si  ullo,  Att.  xii,  23,  I. 

taetrior,  Verr.  iv,  123. 

quod  cuique.  Off.  i,  21. 

quinto  quoque,  Verr.  ii,  139. 

nemo  Romanus,  Liv.  viii,  30,  3. 

alter  exercitum.  Plane.  86. 

alteri  se,  B.  G.  i,  26,  i. 

causidicus,  de  Or.  i,  202. 

Tarquinii,  Liv.  i,  34,  7. 

non  omnis,  Div.  ii,  90. 

Corioli,  Liv.  ii,  ss,  8. 

duo  milia,  Curt,  iii,  2,  5. 

temeritas,  F.  iii,  72. 

si  tu,  Fam.  xiv,  5,  i. 

velatus,  Ov.  Met.  v,  no. 

tunica,  Aen.  viii,  457. 

virtus,  Lael.  100. 

dum  vitant,  Hor.  Sat.  i,  2,  24. 

Caesar,  B.  G.  vii,  90,  2. 

jam  pridem,  Att.  ii,  5,  i. 

Duilium,  de  Sen.  44. 

hostes,  B.  G.  v,  9,  6. 

domicilium,  Arch.  7. 

Regulus,  Oj^.  iii,  100. 

Caesar,  B.  G.  iv,  17,  i. 

nihil  habebam,  Att.  ix,  10,  i. 

videor,  N.  D.  ii,  72. 

Gallos,  B.  G.  vii,  4,  4. 

honestum,  F.  ii,  49. 

si  solos,  Tusc.  Disp.  i,  9. 

rex  tantum,  Nep.  Con.  4. 

Verres,  Verr.  Act.  Pr.  12. 

ardebat.  Brut.  302. 

Caesar,  B.  G.  iii,  24,  i. 

hoc  jam,  Cat.  i,  5. 

dico  me,  Sull.  27. 

quare.  Cat.  i,  32. 

isto  bono,  de  Sen.  33. 

ne  repugnetis,  Cluent.  6. 

tu  vero,  Tusc.  Disp.  i,  112. 

impii  ne,  Leg.  ii,  41. 

cave  ignoscas,  Lig.  14. 

quid  faciam,  PI.  Cure.  589. 

ego  redeam,  Ter.  Run.  49. 

huic  cedamus !  Phil,  xiii,  16. 

quid  facerem,  Ter.  Eun.  831. 

hunc  ego,  Arch.  18. 


ne  sint,  de  Sen.  34. 

fuerit,  Ferr.  i,  37. 

di  istaec,  Ter.  H.  T.  1038. 

falsus  utinam,  Liv.  xxi,  10,  10. 
p.  179,  dicat  aliquis,  Ter.  And.  640. 

fortunam,  Pub.  Syr.  193. 

velim  mihi,  Fam.  xiii,  75,  i. 

nolim  putes,  Fam.  ix,  15,  4. 

dies  deficiat,  N.  D.  iii,  81. 
p.  180,  egredere.  Cat.  i,  20. 

rem  vobis,  Verr.  iv,  i. 

si  bene,  de  Sen.  3. 

consules,  Leg.  iii,  8. 

hominem,  Twelve  Tables. 

amicitia,  Liv.  38,  38,  i. 

quin  equos,  Liv.  i,  57,  7. 
p.  181,  adjuta,  Ter.  Eun.  150. 

portas,  B.  G.  ii,  :i^,  i. 

haec,  ^«(/.  472. 

ut  ne.  Of.  i,  103. 

ut  non.  Cat.  i,  23. 

ut  earum,  B.  G.  iv,  17,  10. 
p.  182,  Helvetii,  5.  G.  i,  7,  3. 

haec  habui,  t/e  Sen.  85. 

non  habebat,  5.  G.  iv,  38,  2. 

idoneus,  Verr.  iii,  41. 

dignus,  Zeg.  iii,  5. 

multa,  rw5c.  />w^.  i,  80. 
p.  183,  sunt  qui,  Inv.  ii,  144. 

nemo,  Fam.  i,  4,  2. 

sapientia.  Fin.  i,  43. 

quae,  Lael.  23. 

non  is  sum,  B.  G.  v,  30,  2. 

non  longius,  5.  G.  ii,  21,  3. 

o  fortunate,  Arch.  24. 

ut  qui,  Phil,  xi,  30. 

egomet,  de  Or.  i,  82. 

nemo  est,  Verr.  iv,  115. 

nemo  fuit,  B.  C.  iii,  53,  3. 

quem  audierim,  Nep.  Ar.  i,  2. 
p.  184,  quis  tam,  Tusc.  Disp.  iii,  71. 

Siciliam,  Verr.  Act.  Pr.  12. 

mons,  B.  G.  i,  6,  i. 

non  is.  Cat.  i,  22. 

nemo  est,  t/e  Sen.  24.  . 

habetis,  Co/,  iv,  24. 

nihil,  Ter.  H.  T.675. 

nemo  est,  B.  G.  vi,  39,  3. 
p.  185,  Themistocles,  Nep.  Them.  8,  3. 

neque,  de  Sen.  84. 

quoniam,  Nep.  Milt.  7,  5. 

noctu,  Tusc.  Disp.  iv,  44. 

Bellovaci,  B.  G.  vii,  75. 


254 


INDEX  TO  THE  EXAMPLES. 


p.  1 86,  id  feci,  Caec.  loi. 

Crasso,  Fam.  xiii,  i6,  3. 

hoc  ita,  Leg.  iii,  31. 

Haeduos,  .B.  G.  i,  16,  6. 

id  omitto,  Sail.  Jug.  no,  7. 
p.  187,  Epaminondas,  Nep.  Ep.  9,  4. 

id  ut,  Nep.  Them.  8,  3. 

Caesar,  B.  G.  iii,  9,  2. 

ubi  de,  B.  G.  i,  7,  3. 

ut  quisque,  Verr.  v,  143. 

hostes,  B.  G.  iv,  26,  2. 

id  ubi,  Liv.  i,  32,  13. 
p.  188,  postquam  occupatae,   Liv.   xxiv, 

35,  4- 

postquam  Romam,  Sail.  Jug.  28, 
2. 

postquam  structi,  Liv.  i,  23,  6. 

posteaquam,  Leg.  ii,  64. 

an  turn,  Pis.  26. 

credo  tum,  Verr.  iv,  46. 

eo  tempore,  Lig.  20. 

illo  die,  Mil.  38. 
p,  189,  Lysander,  Div.  i,  96. 

Pythagoras,  iV.  D.  iii,  88. 

jam  GalU,  B.  G.  vii,  26,  3. 

Treveri,  B.  G.  vi,  7,  i. 

cum  ad,  Verr.  v,  27. 

cum  equitatus,  B.  G.  v,  19,  2. 

saepe  cum,  TVe^.  Cirn.  4,  2. 

cum  procucurrissent,  B.  C.  ii,  41, 
6. 
p.  190,  tum  tua,  Hor.  Epp.  i,  18,  84. 

cum  videbis,  PI.  Bacch.  145. 

stabiUtas,  Lael.  82. 

cum  tacent,  Cat.  i,  21. 

cum  te,  Att.  xiv,  17  A,  4. 

prius,  PI.  Merc.  456. 

nihil  contra,  Place.  51. 

non  prius.  Sail.  C.  51. 
p.  191,  priusquam,  Liv.  i,  24,  3. 

tempestas.  Sen.  Ep.  103,  2. 

priusquam  telum,  B.  C.  ii,  34,  6. 

animum,  PI.  Amph.  240. 

sol  antequam,  Phil,  xiv,  27. 

Ale:sander,    Quint.    Curt,    iv,    6, 

17- 
dum  haec,  J5.  G.  iii,  17,  i- 
dirni  anima,  Att.  ix,  10,  3. 
Lacedaemoniorum,  Tusc.  Disp.  i, 

lOI. 

Cato,  Nep.  Cat.  2,  4. 
p.  192,  donee,  Liv.  xxiii,  31,  9- 
ferrum,  Nep.  Ep.  9,  3. 


trepidationis,  Liv.  xxi,  28,  11. 

exspectavit,  B.  G.  iv,  23,  4. 

dum  litterae,  Fow.  xi,  23,  2. 

postulo,  r^r.  ylw(i.  550. 

orat,  Ter.  Ad.  882. 

milites,  B.  G.  ii,  21,  2. 

Helvetiis,  B.  G.  i,  2,  i. 
p.  193,  huic.  Rose.  Am.  54. 

consuli,  Liv.  xxxv,  20,  4. 

ne  lustrum,  Liv.  xxiv,  43,  4. 

prohibuit,  Liv.  xxv,  35,  6. 

nee  quin,  Liv.  xxvi,  40,  4. 

constitueram,  ^//.  xvi,  10,  i. 

decrevit.  Cat.  i,  4. 

convenit,  Liv.  x,  27,  2. 

facut,  PI.  Rud.  1 2 18. 

cura  ut.  Cat.  iii,  12. 

laborabat,  5.  G.  vii,  31,  i. 
p.  194,  sequitur,  N.  D.  ii,  81. 

eos  moneo,  Cat.  ii,  20. 

huic  imperat,  B.  G.  iv,  21,  8. 

opto,  Verr.  Act.  Pr.  50. 
p.  19s,  vereor  ne,  Att.  vii,  12,  2. 

ex  quo,  F.  ii,  24. 

ita  fit,  Tusc.  Disp.  ii,  i6. 

est  mos.  Brut.  84. 
p.  196,  quis.  Par.  48. 

illud,  Ojf.  iii,  in. 

hoc  uno,  de  Or.  i,  32. 

bene  mihi,  Tusc.  Disp.  i,  97. 

quod,  B.  G.  i,  44,  6. 

quod  me,  Nep.  Ep.  5,  6. 
p.  197,  oculis,  B.  G.  i,  12,  I. 

bis  bina,  N.  D.  ii,  49. 

effugere,  N.  D.  iii,  14. 

saepe  autem,  A^.  D.  iii,  14. 

Epaminondas,  F.  ii,  97. 

ex  Socrate,  Tusc.  Disp.  v,  34. 

nescio,  PI.  Amph.  1056. 
p.  198,  conantur,  B.  G.  i,  8,  4. 

pergit,  Ziz>.  i,  7,  6. 

quaeritur,  A.  Z>.  i,  61. 

hand  scio,  Tusc.  Disp.  ii,  41. 
p.  199,  naturam.  Of.  i,  100. 

memoria,  de  Sen.  21. 

si  quis,  B.  G.  i,  48,  6. 

si  dicendo,  Tac.  Z)ja/.  19. 
p.  200,  mentiar,  Lael.  10. 

haec  si.  Cat.  i,  19. 

sapientia,  F.  i,  42. 

consilium,  de  Sen.  19. 

LaeUus,  Arch.  16. 

num  igitur,  c?e  Sen.  19. 


INDEX   TO   THE   EXAMPLES. 


255 


p.  20I 


p.  202 


P-  203, 


p.    204, 


P-  205, 


p.  206, 


p.  207, 


p.  208, 
p.  209, 
p.  211, 


p.  212, 


P-  213, 


,  nisi  felicitas,  Tac.  Ag7.  31. 
eum  patris,  Phil,  ii,  99. 
si  Sestius,  Sest.  81. 
si  unum,  Liv.  ii,  38,  5- 
non  potestis,  F.  ii,  71. 
eras,  PL  Merc.  770. 
haec  reputent,  Titsc.  Disp.  i,  51. 
roges,  F.  iv,  69. 
ferreus,  Fam.  xv,  21,  3. 
dolorem,  Phil.  12,  21. 
si  feceris,  Fam.  v,  19,  2. 
hoc  si,  Fam.  vii,  i,  6. 
hunc  mihi,  Cat.  i,  18. 
nihil.  Cat.  ii,  10. 
nisi.  Mil.  19. 
sed  quid,  Div.  Caec.  14. 
serviam,  PI.  Men.  iioi. 
sit  fur,  Verr.  v,  4. 
haec  sint,  Ac.  ii,  105. 
ne  sit,  Tusc.  Disp.  ii,  14. 
homines,  Phil,  ii,  39. 
non  est,  Rep.  i,  10. 
quamquam,  Off.  i,  56. 
Caesar,  B.  G.  iv,  31,  i. 
Atticus,  Nep.  Att.  6,  2. 
licet,  Rose.  Am.  31. 
quamquam  quid,  Cat.  i,  22. 
quamquam,  Lfz>.  xxxvi,  34,  6. 
quamvis,  multi,  Tac.  Dial.  2. 
quamvis  infesto,  Liv.  ii,  40,  7. 
multi.  Of.  iii,  82. 
omnia  postposui,  Fam.  xvi,  21,  6. 
nil  obstat,  Hor.  Sat.  i,  i,  40. 
oderint.  Ace.  204. 
manent,  (fe  Sen.  22. 
nubant,  P/.  ^m/.  491, 
quidquid,  A  en.  ii,  49. 
quidquid  oritur,  Div.  ii,  60. 
Regulus,  Of.  iii,  100. 
turn  Romulus,  Liv.  i,  9,  2. 
nuntiattmi,  B.  G.  i,  38,  i. 
dixit,  Nep.  Them.  7,  5. 
Ariovistus,  B.  G.  i,  44,  7. 
milites,  B.  G.  iii,  5,  3, 
Caesar,  B.  G.  i,  14,  6. 
concursu,  Tac.  Z>io/.  39. 
demonstrabantur,  de  Sen.  78, 
Paetus,  Att.  ii,  i,  12. 
nemo.  Par.  52. 

cum  diversas,  Tac.  Dial,  i,  4. 
mos  est,  Oral.  151. 
quod  ego,  PI.  Capt.  961. 
dulce,  Hor.  Od.  iii,  2,  13. 


virorum,  Tusc.  Disp.  ii,  43. 

aliud  est,  Tusc.  Disp.  iv,  27. 

impune.  Sail.  Jug.  31,  26. 

licuit,  Tm^c.  Z)w^.  i,  33. 
p.  214,  Demosthenes,  F.  v,  5. 

beatus,  N.  D.  i,  48. 

Cato,  Sail.  Cat.  54,  5. 

apertum  est,  F.  v,  34. 
p.  215,  Epicurei,  Lael.  13. 

Thales,  N.  D.  i,  25. 

Democritus,  N.  D.  i,  29. 

nuUo  se,  Lig.  3. 

nee  mihi,  de  Sen.  85. 

eas  res,  B.  G.  i,  18. 

te  tua,  Brut.  331. 

cupio,  Cat.  i,  4. 

Timoleon,  iVe^.  Tim.  3,  4. 
p.  216,  gaudeo,  PI.  Bacch.  456. 

non  moleste,  de  Sen.  7. 

Sestius,  Sest.  95. 
p.  217,  traditum,  Tusc.  Disp.  v,  114. 

audax,  Hor.  Od.  i,  3,  25. 

huncine,  Hor.  Sat.  i,  9,  72. 

interim,  B.  G.  i,  16,  i. 
p.  218,  assurgentem,  Liv.  iv,  19. 

gloria,  Tusc.  Disp.  iii,  3. 

Conon,  Nep.  Con.  4,  5. 

omne,  PM.  v,  31. 

mente,  Tusc.  Disp.  v,  100. 
p.  219,  Solon,  de  Sen.  26. 

sol,  N.  D.  ii,  102. 

mendaci,  Div.  ii,  146. 

perfidiam,  B.  G.  vii,  5,  5. 

eis  Catonem,  de  Sen.  3. 

Homerus,  de  Sen.  54. 

urbem,  Liv.  xxii,  20,  4, 

equitatum,  B.  G.  i,  15,  i. 
p.  220,  obliviscendum,  Pac.  Hi^t.  ii,  i. 

numquam,  Ferr.  i,  38. 

suo  cuique,  N.  D.  iii,  i. 

Caesar,  B.  G.  i,  13,  i. 
p.  221,  scribendo,  Fam.  xv,  6,  2. 

mens.  Of.  i,  105. 

Themistocles,  Nep.  Them.  2,  3. 

multa,  P.  i,  5. 
p.  222,  ad  pacem,  Liv.  xxi,  13,  i. 

hostes,  B.  G.  iii,  6,  2. 

legati,  B.  G.  iv,  13,  5. 

quae  ille,  ^a/Z.  Pr.  i,  77,  n. 
p.  223,  legati,  B.  G.  i,  30,  i. 

do  (colloco),  PI.  Tr.  735. 

hoc  est,  Att.  vii,  22,  2. 

cum  homines,  Cat.  i,  31. 


256 


INDEX   TO  THE   EXAMPLES. 


p.  224, 
p.  225, 


p.  226, 

p.  227, 
p.  228, 
p.  229, 

p-  230, 


P-  231, 


discidia,  F.  i,  44. 

horae,  de  Sen.  69. 

Caesar,  B.  G.  ii,  35,  3. 

cita,  Hor.  Sat.  i,  i,  8. 

qui  aether,  N.  D.  ii,  41. 

adsentatio,  Lad.  89. 

Cn.  Pompeio,  B.  G.  iv,  i,  i. 

Darius,  Nep.  Milt.  4,  i. 

magnus,  Nep.  Them.  6,  i. 

erant  duo,  B.  G.  i,  6,  i. 

nisi  forte,  de  Sen.  18. 

id  ut,  Nep.  Them.  8,  3. 

eo  cum,  B.  G.  vii,  7,  4. 

ut  ad,  Lael.  5. 

Septimus,  de  Sen.  38. 

recepto,  B.  C.  iii,  12,  i. 

sed  pleni.  Arch.  14. 

horribilem,  Tusc.  Disp.  i,  118. 

simulatam,  Tac.  A.  i,  10. 


p.  232,  Caesar,  B.  G.  i,  25,  i. 

Haedui,  B.  G.  i,  11,  2. 

Caesar  cum,  B.  G.  i,  7,  i. 

accidit,  Nep.  Ale.  3,  2. 
p.  233,  si  quid.  Arch.  1. 

Caesar,  5.  G.  v,  4,  i. 
p.  237,  hostium,  B.  G.  iii,  29,  3. 

mens  quoque,  de  Sen.  36.  ' 

tanto,  Sull.  59. 
p.  238,  pro  multitudine,  B.  G.  i,  2,  5. 
p.  249,  ut  ager,  Tusc.  Disp.  ii,  13. 

minis,  Tusc.  Disp.  v,  87. 

dissimilis,  Nep.  Chab.  3,  4. 
p.  250,  febris,  Cat.  i,  31. 

submersas,  ^ew.  i,  69. 

nosti,  Fam.  viii,  10,  3. 

tum  Anci,  Liv.  i,  40,  2. 

moriamur,  ^e»,  ii,  353. 

quadrupedante,  Aen.  viii,  596. 


ABBREVIATIONS  USED   IN  INDEX  TO  THE 
ILLUSTRATIVE   EXAMPLES. 


Ac,  Cicero,  Academica. 

Ace,  Accius. 

ad  Her.,  ad  Herennium. 

Aen.,  Virgil,  Aeneid. 

Arch.,  Cicero,  pro  Archia. 

Att.,  Cicero,  Epistulae  ad  Atticum. 

B.  C,  Caesar,  de  Bello  Civili. 

B.  G.,  Caesar,  de  Bello  Gallico. 

Brut.,  Cicero,  Brutus. 

Caec,  Cicero,  pro  Caecina. 

Cat.,  Cicero,  in  Qatilinam. 

Cluent.,  Cicero,  pro  Cluentio. 

Curt.,  Quintus  Curtius. 

de  Dom.,  Cicero,  de  Domo  Sua. 

de  Or.,  Cicero,  de  Oratore. 

de  Sen.,  Cicero,  de  Senectute. 

D.,  Cicero,  de  Divinatione. 

Div.     Caec,      Cicero,      Divinatio     in 

Caecilium. 
Eel.,  Virgil,  Eclogues. 
Eut.,  Eutropius. 
F.,  Cicero,  de  Finibus. 
Fam.,  Cicero,'  Epistulae  ad  Familiares. 
Flac,  Cicero,  pro  Flacco. 
Cell.,  Aulus  Gellius. 
Hor.,  Horace. 

Epp.,  Epistles. 

Od.,  Odes. 

Sat.,  Satires. 
Inv.,  Cicero,  de  Inventione. 
Juv.,  Juvenal. 

Lael.,  Cicero,  Laelius,  de  Amicitia. 
Leg.,  Cicero,  de  Legihus. 
Lig.,  Cicero,  pro  Ligario. 
Li  v.,  Livy. 
Lucr.,  Lucretius. 
Marc,  Cicero,  pro  Marcello. 
Mil.,  Cicero,  pro  Milone. 
N.  D.,  Cicero,  de  Natura  Deorum. 
Nep.,  Nepos. 

Ale,  Alcibiades. 

At.,  Aris tides. 

Att.,  Atticus. 

Cat.,  Cato. 


Chab.  Chahrias. 
Cim.,  Cimon. 
Con.,  Conon. 
■  Dat.,  Datames. 
Ep.,  Epaminondas. 
Milt.,  Miltiades. 
Paus.,  Pausanias. 
Them.,  Themistocles. 
Thras.,  Thrasybulus. 
Tim.,  Timoleon. 
Off.,  Cicero,  de  Officiis. 
Or.,  Cicero,  Orator. 
Ov.,  Ovid. 

Am.,  Amores. 
Met.,  Metamorphoses. 
Par.,  Cicero,  Paradoxa. 
Phil.,  Cicero,  Philippics. 
Pis.,  Cicero,  in  Pisonem. 
Plane,  Cicero,  pro  Plancio. 
PI.,  Plautus. 

Amph.,  Amphitruo. 
Aul.,  Aulularia. 
Bacch.,  Bacchides. 
Capt.,  Captivi. 
Cure,  Curculio. 
Men.,  Menaechmi. 
Mere,  Mercator. 
M.  G.,  Miles  Gloria sus. 
Pers.,  Persa. 
Poen.,  Poenulus. 
Rud.,  Rudens. 
Tr.,  Trinummus. 
Vid.,  Vidularia. 
Plin.  Epp.,  Pliny  the  Younger,  Letters. 
Pub.  Syr.,  Publilius  Syrus. 
Q.  F.,  Cicero,  ad  Quintum  Fratrem. 
Rose  Am.,  Cicero,  pro  Roscio  Amerino. 
Sail.,  SaUust. 

C,  Catiline. 
Fr.,  Fragments. 
Jug.,  Jugurtha. 
Sen.,  Seneca. 

Ep.,  Epistles. 

N.  Q.,  Naturales  Quaestiones. 


257 


258 


ABBREVIATIONS  IN  THE  EXAMPLES. 


Sest.,  Cicero,  pro  Sestio. 

Sex.  Rose,  Cicero,  pro  Sexto  Roscio. 

Sil.,  Silius  Italicus. 

Stat.,  Caecilius  Statius. 

Sull.,  Cicero,  pro  Sulla. 

Tac,  Tacitus. 

A.,  Annals. 

Agr.,  Agricola. 

Dial.,  Dialogus  de  Oraioribus. 

Ger.,  Germania. 

H.,  Histories. 
Ter.,  Terence. 

Ad.,  Adelphoi. 


And.,  Andria. 
Eun.,  Eunuchus. 
Hec,  Hecyra. 

H.  T.,  Hautontimoroumenos. 
Phor.,  Phormio. 
Tusc.  Disp.,  Cicero,   Tusculan  Disputa- 
tions. 
Twelve   Tables,    Laws    of    the    Twelve 

Tables. 
Vatin,,  Cicero,  in  Vatinium. 
Verr.,  Cicero,  in  Verrem. 
Verr.,  Act,  Pr.,  Cicero,  Actio  Prima  in  C. 
Verrem. 


INDEX  TO   THE   PRINCIPAL   PARTS   OF   THE 
MOST   IMPORTANT   VERBS. 


Note.  —  Compounds  are  not  given  unless  they -present  some  special  irregularity.     The 
references  are  to  sections. 


abdo,  122,  I,  2. 
abicio,  122,  III. 
abnuo,  122,  II. 
aboleo,  121,  I. 
abstergeo,  121,  III. 
absum,  125. 
accendo,  122,  I,  4. 
accidit,  138,  III. 
accio,  121, 1,  N. 
accipio,  122,  III. 
acquiro,  122,  I,  6. 
acuo,  122,  II. 
•»ddo,  122,  I,  2. 
adhaeresco,  122,  IV,  2. 
adiplscor,  122,  V. 
adolesco,  122,  IV,  i. 
adsum,  125. 
advenio,  123,  IV. 
affero,  129. 
afficio,  122,  III. 
affligo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
agnosco,  122,  IV,  i, 
ago,  122,  I,  3. 
algeo,  121,  III. 
alo,  122,  I,  5. 
amicio,  123,  III. 
amo,  120,  I. 
amplector,  122,  V. 
ango,  122,  I,  7. 
aperio,  123,  II. 
appeto,  122,  I,  6. 
arceo,  121,  II,  a. 
arcesso,  122,  I,  6. 
ardeo,  121,  III. 
aresco,  122,  iV,  2. 
arguo,  122,  II. 


ascendo,  122,  I,  4. 
aspicio,  122,  III. 
assentior,  123,  VII.    . 
assuefacio,  122,  III. 
assueflo,  122,  III. 
audio,  123,  I. 
aufero,  129. 
augeo,  121,  III. 
aveo,  121,  II,  a,  N.-2. 

C. 

cado,  122,  I,  .2. 
caedo,  122,  I,  2. 
calefacio,  122,  III. 
calefio,  122,  III. 
caleo,  121,  II,  a. 
calesco,  122,  IV,  2. 
cano,  122,  I,  2. 
capesso,  122,  I,  6. 
capio,  122,  III. 
careo,  121,  II,  a. 
carpo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
caveo,  121,  V. 
cedo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
censeo,  121,  II,  b. 
cerno,  122,  I,  6. 
cieo,  121,  I. 
cingo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
circumsisto,  122,  I,  2. 
claudo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
claudo,  122,  I,  7. 
coemo,  122,  I,  3. 
coepi,  133. 
coerceo,  121,  II,  a. 
cognosce,  122,  IV,  I. 
cogo,  122,  I,  3. 

259 


colligo,  122,  I,  3. 
colo,  122,  I,  5. 
comminlscor,  122,  V. 
comperio,  123,  V. 
compleo,  121,  I. 
concutio,  122,  III. 
condo,  122,  I,  2. 
confero,  129. 
confiteor,  121,  VII. 
congruo,  122,  II. 
consenesco,  122,  IV,  2. 
consero,  122,  I,  5. 
consero,  122,  I,  6  (plant). 
consido,  122,  I,  4. 
consisto,  122,  I,  2. 
conspicio,  122,  III. 
constat,  138,  III. 
constituo,  122,  II. 
consuesco,  122,  IV,  i. 
consuls,  122,  I,  5. 
contineo,  121,  II,  b. 
contingit,  138,  III. 
coquo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
crepo,  120,  II. 
cresco,  122,  IV,  i. 
cubo,  120,  II. 
cupio,  122,  III. 
curro,  12  2,  I,  2. 


debeo,  121,  II,  a. 
decerno,  122,  I,  6. 
decet,  138,  II. 
dedecet,  138,  II. 
dedo,  122,  I,  2. 
defends,  122,  I,  4. 


26o 


INDEX   TO   THE   PRINCIPAL   PARTS 


deleo,  121,  I, 
deligo,  122,  I,  3. 
demo,  122,  I,  3. 
desero,  122,  I,  5. 
desino,  122,  I,  6. 
desum,  125. 
dico,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
differo,  129. 
diligo,  122,  I,  3. 
dimico,  120,  II. 
dirimo,  122,  I,  3. 
diripio,  122,  III. 
dlruo,  122,  II. 
discerno,  122,  I,  6. 
disco,  122,  IV,  I. 
dissero,  122,  I,  5. 
distinguo,  p.  87,  footnote, 
divido,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
do,  127. 

doceo,  121,  II,  6. 
doleo,  121,  II,  a. 
domo,  120,  II. 
duco,  122,  I,  I,  a. 

E. 

edo,  122,  I,  2. 
edo,  122,  I,  3. 
eflfero,  129. 
efifugio,  122,  III. 
egeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 
elicio,  122,  III. 
emineo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 
emo,  122,  I,  3. 
eo,  132. 

esurio,  123,  VI. 
evado,  p.  87,  footnote, 
evanesco,  122,  IV,  3. 
excolo,  122,  I,  5. 
excudo,  122,  I,  4. 
exerceo,  121,  II,  a. 
experior,  123,  VII. 
expleo,  121,  I,  N. 
explico,  120,  II. 
exstinguo,  p.  87,  footnote, 
extimesco,  122,  IV,  2. 


facio,  122,  III. 
fallo,  122,  I,  2. 
fateor,  121,  VII. 
faveo,  121,  V. 


The  references  are  to  sections. 

ferio,  123,  VI. 

fero,  129. 

ferveo,  121,  VI. 

figo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 

findo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 

fingo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 

fio,  131. 

flecto,  122,  I,  I,  b. 

fleo,  121,  I. 

floreo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i. 

floresco,  122,  IV,  2. 

fluo,  122,  II. 

fodio,  122,  III. 

foveo,  121,  V. 

frango,  122,  I,  3. 

fremo,  122,  I,  5. 

frico,  120,  II. 

frigeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 

fruor,  122,  V. 

fugio,  122,  III. 

fulcio,  123,  III. 

fulgeo,  121,  III.     . 

fulget,  138,  I. 

fundo,  122,  I,  3. 

fungor,  122,  V. 

furo,  122,  I,  7. 


gemo,  122,  I,  5. 
gero,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
gigno,  122,  I,  5. 
gradior,  122,  V. 


H. 

habeo,  121,  II,  a. 
haereo,  121,  III. 
haurio,  123,  III. 
horreo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i. 


I. 

ignosco,  121,  IV,  2. 
illicio,  122,  III. 
imbuo,  122,  II. 
immineo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 
impleo,  121,  I,  N. 
implies,  120,  II. 
incipio,  122,  III. 
incolo,  122,  I,  5. 
incumbo,  122,  I,  5. 
indulge©,  121,  III, 


induo,  122,  II. 
infero,  129. 
ingemisco,  122,  IV,  2. 
insum,  125. 
intellego,  122,  I,  3. 
interficio,  122,  III. 
intersum,  125. 
invado,  p.  87,  footnote, 
invenio,  123,  IV. 
irascor,  122,  V. 

J. 

jaceo,  121,  II,  a. 
jacio,  122,  III. 
jubeo,  121,  III. 
jungo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
juvo,  120,  III. 


L. 

labor,  122,  V. 
lacesso,  122,  I,  6. 
laedo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
lambo,  122,  I,  7. 
largior,  123,  VII. 
lateo,  121,  II,  a,  n. 
lavo,  120,  III. 
lego,  122,  I,  3. 
libet,  138,  II. 
liceor,  121,  VII. 
licet,  138,  II. 
loquor,  122,  V. 
luceo,  121,  III. 
ludo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
lugeo,  121,  III. 
luo,  122,  II. 


^ 


M. 

maereo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 
malo,  130. 
maneo,  121,  III. 
maturesco,  122,  IV,  3. 
medeor,  121,  VII. 
memini,  133. 
mereo,  121,  II,  a, 
meteor,  121,  VII. 
mergo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 
metior,  123,  VII. 
metuo,  122,  II. 
mico,  120,  II. 
minuo,  122.  II. 


OF  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


261 


misceo,  121,  II,  6. 
miseret,  138,  II. 
misereor,  121,  VII. 
mitto,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
molo,  122,  I,  5. 
moneo,  121,  II,  a. 
mordeo,  121,  IV. 
morior,  122,  V. 
moveo,  121,  V. 

N. 

nanciscor,  122,  V. 
nascor,  122,  V. 
necto,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
neglego,  122,  I,  3. 
ningit,  138,  I. 
niteo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i. 
nitor,  122,  V. 
noceo,  121,  II,  a. 
nolo,  130. 
nosco,  122,  IV,  I. 
nubo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 


obduresco,  122,  IV,  3. 
oblino,  122,  I,  6. 
obliviscor,  122,  V.' 
obmutesco,  122,  IV,  3. 
obruo,  122,  II. 
obsolesco,  122,  IV,  i. 
obsum,  125. 
obtineo,  121,  II,  b. 
odi,  133. 
offero,  129. 
oleo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  I. 
operio,  123,  II. 
oportet,  138,  II. 
opperior,  123,  VII. 
ordior,  123,  VII. 
orior,  123,  VII. 


paenitet,  138,  II. 
palleo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i, 
pando,  122,  I,  4. 
parco,  122,  I,  2. 
pareo,  121,  II,  a. 
pario,  122,  III. 
pasco,  122,  IV,  I. 
pascor,  122,  IV,  i. 


The  references  are  to  sections. 

patefacio,  122,  III. 
patefio,  122,  III. 
pateo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  I. 
patior,  122,  V. 
paveo,  121,  V. 
pellicio,  122,  III. 
pello, .122,  I,  2. 
pendeo,  121,  IV. 
pendo,  122,  I,  2. 
perago,  122,  I,  3. 
percello,  122,  I,  2,  n. 
percrebresco,  122,  IV,  3. 
perdo,  122,  I,  2.   . 
perficio,  122,  III. 
perfringo,  122,  I,  3.    • 
perfruor,  122,  V. 
perlego,  122,  I,  3. 
permulceo,  121,  III. 
perpetior,  122,  V. 
pervado,  p.  87,  footnote, 
peto,  122,  I,  6. 
piget,  138,  II. 
pingo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
placed,  121,  II,  a. 
plaudo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
pluit,  138,  I. 
polleo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  2. 
polliceor,  121,  VII. 
polluo,  122,  II. 
pono,  122,  I,  6. 
posco,  122,  IV,  I. 
possldo,  122,  I,  4. 
possum,  126. 
poto,  120,  I. 
praebeo,  121,  II,  a. 
praestat,  138,  III. 
praesum,  125. 
prandeo,  121,  VI. 
prehendo,  122,  I,  4. 
premo,  122,  I,  i,  b. 
prodo,  122,  I,  2. 
promo,  122,  I,  3. 
prosum,  125. 
prosterno,  122,  I,  6. 
pudet,  138,  II. 
pungo,  122,  I,  2. 


quaero,  122,  I,  6. 
quatio,  122,  III. 
queror,  122,  V. 
quiesco,  122,  IV,  i. 


rado,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
rapio,  122,  III. 
reddo,  122,  I,  2. 
redimo,  122,  I,  3. 
refercio,  123,  III. 
refero,  129. 
refert,  138,  II. 
rego,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
relinquo,  122,  I,  3. 
reminiscor,  122,  V. 
reor,  121,  VII. 
reperio,  123,  V. 
repo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
resists,  122,  I,  2. 
respuo,  122,  II. 
restinguo,  p.  87,  footnote, 
retineo,  121,  II,  b. 
rideo,  121,  III. 
rodo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
rubeo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i. 
rumpo,  122,  I,  3. 
ruo,  122,  II. 


saepio,  123,  III, 
salio,  123,  II. 
sancio,  123,  III. 
sapio,  122,  III. 
sarcio,  123,  III. 
scindo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 
scisco,  122,  IV,  2. 
scribo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
sculpo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
seco,  120,  II. 
sedeo,  121,  V. 
sentio,  123,  III. 
sepelio,  123,  I. 
sequor,  122,  V. 
sero,  122,  I,  6. 
serpo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
sileo,  121,  II,  a,  N. 
sino,  122,  I,  6. 
solvo,  122,  I,  4. 
so  no,  120,  II. 
spargo,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
sperno,  122,  I,  6. 
splendeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i 
spondeo,  121,  IV. 
status,  122,  II. 
stems,  122,  I,  6. 
-stinguS,  122,  I,  I,  a. 


262   INDEX  TO  THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  VERBS. 


sto,  120,  IV. 
.  strepo,  122,  I,  5. 
strideo,  121,  VI. 
stringo,  122,  I,  i,  a. 
struo,  122,  II. 
studeo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i. 
suadeo,  121,  III. 
subigo,  122,  I,  3. 
subsum,  125, 
sum,  100. 
sumo,  122,  I,  3. 
suo,  122,  II. 
supersum,  125. 
sustineo,  121,  II,  b. 

T. 

taceo,  121,  II,  a. 
taedet,  138,  II. 
tango,  122,  I,  2. 
tego,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
temno,  122,  I,  i,  a. 
tends,  122,  I,  2. 
teneo,  121,  II,  b. 
tero,  122,  I,  6. 
terreo,  121,  II,  a. 


The  references  are  to  sections 
texo,  122,  I,  5. 
timeo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i. 
tingo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
tollo,  122,  I,  2,  N. 
tonat,  138,  I. 
tondeo,  121,  IV. 
tono,  120,  II. 
torpeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  i. 
torqueo,  121,  III. 
torreo,  121,  11,  b. 
trado,  122,  I,  2. 
traho,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
tremo,  122,  I,  5, 
tribuo,  122,  II. 
trudo,'  122,  I,  I,  b. 
tueor,  121,  VII. 
tundo,  122,  I,  2. 


U. 

ulciscor,  122,  V. 
unguo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
urgco,  121,  III. 
uro,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
utor,  122,  V. 


vado,  122,  I,  I,  b. 
valeo,  121,  II,  a. 
veho,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
vello,  122,  I,  4. 
venio,  123,  IV. 
vereor,  121,  VII. 
vergo,  122,  I,  7. 
verro,  122,  I,  4. 
verto,  122,  I,  4. 
vescor,  122,  V. 
veto,  120,  II. 
video,  121,  V. 
vigeo,  121,  II,  a,  N.  I. 
vincio,  123,  III. 
vinco,  122,  I,  3. 
vireo,  121,  II,  a,  n.  i, 
viso,  122,  I,  4. 
vivo,  122,  I,  I,  a. 
volo,  130. 
volvo,  122,  I,  4. 
vomo,  122,  I,  5. 
voveo,  121,  V. 


H 


GENERAL   INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  Sections  and  paragraphs. 


Abbreviations.  —  Abl.,  ablative;  ace,  accusative;  adj.,  adjective;  adv.,  adverb,  adver- 
bial, or  adverbially;  cf.,  compare;  comp.,  comparison  or  comparative;  conj.,  conjunction  or 
conjugation;  const.,  constr.,  construction;  dat.,  dative;  decl.,  declension;  gen.,  genitive; 
ind.,  indicative;  indir.  disc,  indirect  discourse;  loc,  locative;  N.,  note;  nom.,  nominative i 
plu.,  plural;  prep.,  preposition;  pron.,  pronoun  or  pronunciation;  sing.,  singular;  subj., 
subject;  subj  v.,  subjunctive;  voc,  vocative;  w.,  with. 


A. 

a,  vowel,  2,  I ;  pronunciation,  3,  i ;  de- 
velopment of  a,  before  a  single  conso- 
nant, 7,  I,  a;  before  two  consonants, 
7,  I,  i;  ^  as  ending  of  nom.  sing,  of 
ist  decl.,  20;  in  voc.  sing,  of  Greek 
nouns  in  -es  of  ist  decl.,  22 ;  in  nom. 
sing,  of  Greek  nouns  in  -e  of  ist  decl., 
22,  3;  termination  of  nom.  and  ace. 
plu.  of  neuters,  23 ;  35;  48;  termina- 
tion of  nom.  sing,  of  nouns  of  3d  decl., 
28;  gender  of  nouns  in  -a,  of  3d  decl., 
43,  3 ;  ending  of  ace.  sing,  of  Greek 
nouns  of  3d  decl.,  47,  i ;  regular  quan- 
tity of  final  a,  363,  i ;  exceptions  to 
quantity  of  final  a,  363,  i,  a-c. 

a,  pronunciation,  3,  i ;  arising  by  con- 
traction, 7,  2  ;  as  ending  of  stem  in  ist 
decl.,  18;  a-stems  inflected,  20 ;  in  voc. 
sing,  of  Greek  nouns  of  ist  decl.,  22; 
in  voc.  sing,  of  Greek  nouns  in  -as  of 
3d  decl.,  47,  4;  distinguishing  vowel 
of  ist  conjugation,  98;  ending  of  im- 
perative act.  of  ist  conj.,  loi ;  final  a 
long  by  exception,  363,  i,  a-c. 

a,  ab,  abs,  use,  142,  i ;  with  town  names, 
229,  2. 

d  to  denote  agency,  216. 

to  denote  separation,  214. 

place  from  which,  229. 

with  town  names,  229,  2. 

with  abl.  of  gerund,  338,  4,  b. 

-d-stems,  20;  98;  loi. 


Abbreviations  of  proper  names,  373. 
Ablative  case,  17;   213  f. 

in  -dbus,  21.  2,  e. 

in  -d  in  prons.,  84,  3 ;   85,  3. 

formation  of  sing,   of  adjs.   of  3d 

decl.,  67,  a;  70,  1-5. 

of  ^-stems,  37 ;  38. 

genuine  abl.  uses,  214  f. 

absolute,  227. 

of  agent,  216. 

■  of  accompaniment,  222. 

of  accordance,  220,  3. 

of  association,  222,  A. 

of  attendant  circumstance,  221 ;  227, 

2,  e). 

of  cause,  219. 

of  comparison,  217, 

of  degree  of  difiference,  223. 

•  of  fine  or  penalty,  208,  2,  b. 

of  manner,  220. 

of  material,  224,  3. 

of  means,  218. 

of  penalty,  208,  2,  b. 

of  place  where,  22S. 

of  place  whence,  239.^ 

of  price,  225. 

of  quality,  224. 

of  separation,  224^  with  compounds 

of  dis-  and  se-,  214,  3. 

of  source,  215. 

of  specification,  226. 

of  time  at  which,  230. 

of  time  during  which,  231,  i. 

263 


264 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Ablative  case  of  time  within  which,  231. 
Ablative  case,  of  way  by  which,  2ig29. 
with  contineri,  consistere,   consldre, 

218,  4. 

with  special  phrases,  218,  7. 

with  jungere,  miscere,  mutare,  etc., 

222,  A. 

with/ac^o, /fo,  218,  6. 

with  prepositions,  142;    213  f. 

with  verbs  of  filling,  218,  8. 

with  verbs  and  adjs.  of  freeing,  214, 

I,  a,  and  n.  i. 

with  adjs.  of  plenty,  218,  8. 

with  Utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  ves- 

cor,  218,  I. 

with  opus  and  usus,  218,  2. 

with  nitor,  innixus,  smd  fretus,  218, 3. 

abs,  142,  I. 
absens,  125. 
Absolute,  ablative,  227. 

time,  of  participles,  336,  4. 

use  of  verbs,  174,  a.        ^ 

Abstract  nouns,  12,  2,  b);   plural  of,  55, 

4,  c). 
-dbus,  21,  2,  e). 

ac,  341,  2,  b) ;    =  as,  than,  341,  i,  c). 
Acatalectic  verses,  366,  '9. 
accedit  ut,  297,  2. 
Accent,  6,;   in  gen.  of  nouns  in  -ius  and 

-ium,  25,  I  and  2. 
accidit  ut,  297,  2. 
accidit  quod,  299,  i,  b. 
Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  222. 
Accordance,  abl.  of,  220,  3. 
Accusative  case,  17;    in  -an  and  -en,  of 

Greek  nouns,  22;   in  -om  in  2d  decl., 

24 ;  in  -on  and  -on  in  Greek  nouns,  27  ; 

in  -a  in  sing,  of  Greek  nouns,  47,  i ; 

in  -ds  in  plu.,  47,  3 ;    in  -im  and  -Is 

in  i-stems,  37;   38;  ace.  sing.  neut.  as 

adv.,  77,  3;   176,  3;    172  f. 

of  duration  of  time,  181. 

of  result  produced,  173,  B;   176. 

of  extent  of  space,  181. 

of  limit  of  motion,  182  f. 

of  neut.  prons.  or  adjs.,  176,  2. 

of  person  or  thing  affected,  173,  A; 

175. 

in  exclamations,  183. 

as  subj.  of  inf.,  184. 

with  admoneo,  commoneo,  etc.,  207. 

with  adv.  force,  176,  3. 

with  compounds,  175,  2. 


with  impersonal  verbs,  175,  2,  c. 

with  intransitive  verbs,  175,  2,  a. 

with  passive  used  as  middle,  175, 

2,  d). 
with  verbs  of  remembering  and  for- 
getting   {meminl,    obliviscor,    reminis- 

cor),  206,  I ;  2. 
with  verbs  expressing  emotion,  175, 

2,  b. 
with  verbs  of  tasting  and  smelling, 

176,  5- 
with    verbs    of    making,    choosing, 

calling,  regarding,  etc.,  iTj. 
with   verbs   of   asking,    requesting, 

demanding,  teaching,  concealing,  178, 

with  adjs.  {propter,  proximus),  141, 

3- 

with    adverbs    (propius,    proxime), 

141,  3 ;   clam,  pridie,  144,  2. 

Genavam  ad  oppidum,  182,  2,  a. 

cognate  ace,  176,  4. 

Greek  ace,  180. 

synecdochical  ace,  180. 

two  aces.,  direct  obj.  and  pred.  ace, 

177;  person  affected  and  result  pro- 
duced, 178;  with  compounds  of  trans, 
179;  with  other  compounds,  179,  2. 

with  prepositions,  141 ;   179  f. 

retained  in  pass.,  178,  2. 

Accusing,  verbs  of,  constr.,  208  f. 

accuso,  constr.,  178,  i,  d). 

deer,  decl.,  68;   compared,  71,  3. 

Acquitting,  verbs  of,  constr.,  208  f . 

ac  si,  with  subj  v.,  307,  i. 

ad,  'toward,'  'in  vicinity  of,'  182,  3;  ad 
with  ace  alternating  with  dat,,  358,  2. 

compounds  of  ad  governing  dat., 

187,  III;    188,  2,  d. 

with  gerund  denoting  purpKJse,  338, 

3- 

-ades,  patronymic  ending,  148,  6,  a. 

adg-  =  agg-,  9,  2. 

Adjectives,  62  f. ;  354;  derivation  of, 
150  f. 

of  ist  and  2d  decl.,  63  ff. 

in  -ius,  gen.  sing.,  63,  a. 

of  3d  decl.,  67  ff. ;  in  abl.,  70,  5. 

comparison  of  adjs.,  71  f.;    in  -er, 

71,  3;  in  -His,  71,  4;  comparative 
lacking,  73,  3;  defective  comparison, 
73 ;  not  admitting  comparison,  75 ; 
comparison  by  magis  and  maxime,  74. 


I 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


265 


Adjectives,  numerals,  78  f . 

syntax,    233    ff. ;     attributive    and 

predicate  adjs.,  233,  2. 

agreement,  234,  f . 

used  substantively,  236  f . 

denoting  part  of  an  object,  241,  i. 

with  force  of  adverbs,  239. 

force  of  comp.  and  superl.,  240,  i. 

not  followed  by  infinitive,  333. 

liot  used  with  proper  names,  354,  3. 

equivalent  to  a  poss.  gen.,  354,  4. 

special  Latin  equivalents  of  Eng. 

adjs.,  354,  i- 

equiv.  to  rel.  clause,  241,  2. 

as  pred.  ace,  177,  2. 

position  of  adj.,  350,  4. 

pronominal  adjs.,  92. 

governing  gen.,  204. 

governing  da t.,  192. 

— — governing  ace,  141,  3. 

construed  with  abl.,  214,  i,  d;   217, 

i;   218,8;   223;   226,2;   227,1. 

with  supine  in  -w,  340,  .2. 

adl-  =  all-,  9,  2. 

admoneo,  constr.,  207. 

Admonishing,  const,  of  verbs  of,  207. 

adr-  =  arr-,  9,  2. 

ads-  =  ass-,  9,  2. 

ad    sensum,  constr.,  235,  B,  2,  c;    254, 

4- 
adulescens,  spelling,  9,  2. 
adulter,  decl.,  23,  2. 
adultus,  force,  114,  2. 
Adverbs,   defined,    140;    formation  and 

comparison,  76  f. ;    140,  157. 

in  -iter  from  adjs.  in  -us,  77,  4. 

in  -tus  and  -tim,  77,  5. 

in  0  and  -0,  77,  2. 

numeral,  79. 

as  preps.,  144,  2. 

derivation  of,  157. 

with  gen.,  201,  2 ;  3 ;  and  a. 

special  meanings,  347. 

position,  350,  6. 

Adversative  clauses,  309. 

conjunctions,  343. 

adversus,  prep,  with  ace,  141. 

ae,    how    pronounced,    3,    2;     phonetic 

changes,  7,  1,  d. 
aedes,  plu.,  61. 
aequdlis,  abl.  sing,  of,  70,  5,  a;  as  subst., 

238. 
aequor,  decl.,  34. 


aequum  est  =  aequum  sit,  271,  i,  h). 
aes,  in  plu.,  55,  4,  b;  lacks  gen.  plu.,  57, 

7. 
aetds,  decl.,  40,  i,  e) ;  id  aetdtis,  185,  2. 
-aeus,  suffix,  152,  3. 
aevom,  decl.,  24. 

Affected,  ace.  of  person  or  thing,  175. 
Agency,  dat.  of,  189;  abl.,  216. 
Agent,  abl.,  216,  with  names  of  animals, 

216,  2. 
ager,  decl.,  23. 
Agreement,  nouns,  166;  168;   169,2;  3; 

4- 
adjs.  234;    in  gender,  235,  B;    in 

number,  235,  A;   prons.,  250;    verbs, 

with  one  subj.,  254,  i ;    with  two  or 

more  subjs.,  .255,  i. 
-at,    case-ending,    gen.    sing.,    ist   decl., 

poet.,  21,  2,  b). 
am,  135,  N. 

<^Jo,  135 ;  quantity  of  first  syllable,  362,  5. 
-al,  declension  of  nouns  in,  39. 
alacer,  decl.,  68,  i ;   comp.,  73,  4. 
aliqua,  91,  2. 
aliqui,  91 ;   91,  2. 
aliquis,  91;   252,  2;   aliquis  dlcat,  dlxerit, 

280,  I. 
-dlis,  suffix,  151,  2. 
aliter  ac,  341,  i,  c. 
alius,    66 ;     92,    i ;     used    correlatively, 

253,  I. 
alius  ac,  'other  than,'  341,  i,  c). 
Allia,  gender  of,  15,  3,  n. 
allicio,  conj.,  109,  2,b). 
Alliteration,  375,  3. 
Alphabet,  i. 
alter,  decl.,  66;  92,  i ;  used  correlatively, 

,253,  I. 
Alternative  questions,  162,  4;    indirect, 

300,  4. 
alteruter,  decl.,  92,  2. 
alvus,  gender  of,  26,  i,  b. 
amandus  sum,  conj.,  115. 
amdturus  sum,  conj.,  115. 
amb-  (ambi-),  159,  3,  N. 
ambo,  80,  2,  a;  usage,  355,  2. 
amo,  conj.,  loi. 

amplius  =  amplius  quam,  217,  3. 
amussis,  -im,  38,  i. 
an,  162,  4,  and  a) ;  300,  4;  haud  scio  an, 

nescio  an,  300,  5. 
Anacoluthon,  374,  6. 
Anapaest,  366,  2. 


266 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Anaphora,  350,  11,  •^). 

Anastrophe  of  prep.,  141,  2 ;  142,  3 ; 
144,  3- 

anceps  (syllaba  anceps),  defined,  366, 
10. 

Androgeos^  decl.,  27. 

animal,  decl.,  S9- 

Animals,  as  agents,  216,  2. 

animl,  locative,  232,  3. 

annon,  in  double  questions,  162,  4. 

Answers,  162,  5. 

ante,  prep.  w.  ace,  141 ;  as  adv.,  144,  i ; 
dat.  w.  verbs  compounded  w.  ante, 
187,  III;  in  expressions  of  time,  357, 
I,"  37i>  5;  flwfe  diem,  371,  5;   6. 

Antecedent  of  rel.,  251. 

attraction  of,  251,  4. 

incorporated  with  rel.,  251,  4. 

Antecedent  omitted,  251,  i. 

repeated  with  rel.,  251,  3. 

Antepenult,  6,  2. 

antepono,  with  dat.,  187,  III,  2. 

antequam,  with  ind.,  291 ;  with  subjv., 
292. 

Anticipation,  denoted  by  subjv.,  w. 
antequam  and  priusquam,  292 ;  by 
subjv.  with  dum,  donee,  quoad,  293, 
III,  2;  374,  5. 

-anus,  suffix,  151,  2;   152,  i ;  3. 

Aorist  tense,  see  Historical  perfect. 

Apodosis,  301  fif. 

in  conditional  sent,  of  ist  type,  302, 

4 ;  result  clauses  as  apodoses,  322  ;  quin- 
clauses  as  apodoses,  322;  ind.  ques- 
tions as  apodoses,  322,  b;  potuerim  in 
apodosis,  322,  c ;  apodosis  in  indir.  disc, 
319-321 ;  in  expressions  of  obligation, 
ability,  etc.,  304,  3,  a ;  with  periphras- 
tic conjugations,  304,  3,  b. 

Apposition,  169;  agreement,  169,  2; 
partitive,  169,  5;  with  voc.  in  nom., 
171,  2 ;  genitive  w.  force  of  appositive, 
202 ;  id  as  appositive  of  clause,  247, 
1,  b;  inf.  as  appositive,  326;  329; 
subst.  clauses  as  appositives,  282,  i, 
/;   294;   297,  3. 

Appositive  of  locative,  169,  4;  with  ace. 
of  limit  of  motion,  182,  2,  a ;  with  town 
names,  in  abl.  of  place  whence,  229, 
2. 

position  of,  350,  2. 

aptus,  w.  dat.,  192,  2. 

apud,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 


Archids,  declension  of,  22. 
-or,  declension  of  nouns  in, 
d). 


39- 


arguo,  constr.,  178, 

-dris,  suffix,  151,  2. 

-drium,  suffix,  148,  3. 

-drius,  suffix,  151,  2. 

armiger,  decl.,  23,  2. 

Arrangement  of  words,  348-350;  ol 
clauses,  351. 

Arsis,  defined,  366,  6. 

artus,  dat.  and  abl.  plu.  of,  49,  3. 

arx,  decl.,  40. 

-as,  ace.  plu.  in  Greek  nouns,  47,  3. 

-as,  old  gen.  sing.,  ist  decl.,  case-end- 
ing, 21,  2,  a). 

ending     of     Greek     nouns,     nom. 

sing,  in,  22. 

gender  of  nouns  in  -as,  43,  2  ;  45,  i. 

voc.  of  Greek  nouns  in  -as,  antis,. 

47,  4- 

dtis,  abl.  of  patrials  in,  70,  5,  c). 

Asking,  case  const,  with  verbs  of,  178,1^ 
c ;  subst.  clauses  w.,  295,  i ;  ind.  ques- 
tions, 300,  I. 

Aspirates,  2,  3,  c. 

Assimilation  of  consonants,  8,  4  f . ;  9,  2, 

Association,  abl.  of,  222,  A. 

Asyndeton,  341,  4,  a) ;  346. 

at,  343,  i,d). 

-dtim,  suffix,  157,  2. 

Atlas,  decl.,  47,  4. 

atomus,  gender  of,  26,  1,  c). 

atque,  341,  2,  b);  =  as,  341,  i,  c). 

atqui,  343,  I,  e). 

Attendant  circumstance,  abl.  of,  221 ; 
227,  2,  e). 

Attraction  of  demonstratives,  246,  5;  of 
relatives,  250,  5;  subjunctive  by  at- 
traction, 324;  of  adjectives,  327,  2,  a; 
328,  2. 

Attributive  adjs.,  233,  2. 

-dtus,  its  force  as  suffix,  151,  4. 

auddcter,  formation  and  comparison, 
76,  2. 

audeo,  conj.,  114,  i. 

audio,    conj.,    107;    with   pres.    partic.^ 

337,  3- 
auldl,  archaic  gen.,  21,  2,  b. 
ausus,  force  as  participle,  336,  5. 
aut,  342,  I,  a). 
autem,  343,  i,  c) ;  350,  8. 
Auxiliary  omitted  in  infin.,   116,  5;    in 

finite  forms,  166,  3. 


i 


GENERAL   INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


267 


auxUium,  auxilia,  61. 
-dx,  suffix,  150,  2. 

B. 

balneum,  balneae,  60,  2, 

barbitos,  decL,  27, 

Believing,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  187,  II. 

belli,  locative,  232,  2. 

bellum,  decl.,  23. 

bene,  comparison,  77,  i. 

Benefiting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 

benevolus,  comparison,  71,  5,  a). 

-ber,  declension  of  month  names  in,  68,  i . 

-bilis,  suffix,  150,  4. 

bonus,  decl.,  63;   comparison,  72. 

bos,  decl.,  41. 

Brachylog>%  374,  2. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  368,  3,  d. 

-bulum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

-bundus,  suffix,  150,  i. 

bUris,  decl.,  38,  i. 

C. 

C,  for  G.  as  abbreviation  of  Gains,  373. 

caedes,  decl.,  40. 

Caesura,  366,  8;   in  dactylic  hexameter, 

368,  3. 
calcar,  decl.,  39. 
Calendar,  371 ;  372. 
Calends,  371,  2,  a), 
cam  pester,  decl.,  68,  i. 
canis,  decl.,  38,  2. 
capio,  conj.,  no. 
carbasus,  gender  of,  26,  i,  6). 
career,  car  ceres,  61. 
Cardinals,  defined,   78,    i ;    list  of,   79 ; 

decl.,  80;   with  and  without  et,  81,  i ; 

3;    expressed  by  subtraction,   81,   2; 

replaced  by  distributives  in  poetry,  81, 

4,  d. 
care,  comparison,  76,  2. 
card,  decl.,  42. 
carrus,  carrum,  60,  i. 
Cases,  17  ;   aUke  in  form,  19;    170  ff. 
Case-endings,  17,  3. 
castrum,  castra,  61. 
Catalectic  verses,  366,  9. 
causa,  with  gen.,  198,  i ;   nulla  causa  est 

cur,  with  subjv.,  295,  7. 
Causal   clauses,    285;     286;     clause    of 

characteristic  with  accessory  notion  of 

cause,  283,  3. 


conjunctions,  345. 

Cause,  abl.  of,  219;   227,  2,  d). 

cave,  363,  2,  b). 

cave,  cave  ne  in  prohibitions,  376,  6. 

-ce,  6,  3  f. ;   87,  footnote  2. 

cedo,  ceUe,  137,  3. 

cedo,  with  dat.,  187,  II. 

celeber,  decl.,  68,  i. 

celer,  decl.,  68,  2. 

celo,  constr.,  178,  1,  e). 

cendtus,  force,  114,  2. 

cetera,  adverbial  ace,  185,  2. 

ceteri,  use,  253,  4. 

Characteristic,  clauses  of,  283 ;  denoting 
cause  or  opposition  ('although'),  283, 
3;  gen.  of,  203,  i;  abl.,  224. 

Charge,  gen.  of,  208,  i ;   2. 

Chiasmus,  350,  11,  c). 

Choosing,  const,  w.  verbs  of,  177,  1-3. 

circa,  circUer,  circum,  preps,  w.  ace, 
141. 

circum,  compounds  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 

circumdo,  const.,  187,  i,  a. 

Circumstance,  abl.  of  attendant,  221. 

cis,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

citerior,  comparison,  73,  i. 

cito,  77,  2,  a. 

citrd,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

clvitds,  decl.,  40,  x,  e. 

clam,  with  ace,  144,  2. 

Clauses,  coord,  and  subord.,  164,  165. 

Clauses  of  characteristic,  283 ;  purpose, 
282;  result,  284;  causal,  285;  tem- 
poral with  postquam,  ut,  ubi,  simul  ac, 
etc.,  287;  with  CMW,  288;  substantive 
clauses,  294  f. ;  condition,  301  f.;  con- 
ditional comparison,  307 ;  concessive, 
308 ;  adversative,  309 ;  wish  or  proviso, 
310;  relative,  311  f. ;   283  f. 

cldvis,  decl.,  38,  i. 

Clinging,  construction  of  verbs  of,  258,  3. 

clipeus,  clipeum,  60,  i. 

Close  of  sentences,  cadences  used,  350, 
12. 

coepi,  conj.,  133;  coeptus  est,  133,  i. 

Cognate  ace,  176,  4. 

cognomen,  373. 

cogo,  w.  ace,  178,  i,  d) ;  w.  infin.,  331, 
VI. 

Collective  nouns,  12,  2,  a);  w.  pla 
verb,  254,  4- 

colus,  gender  of,  26,  i,  b). 

com-,  compounds  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 


268 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  references  are  to 

comedo,  conj.,  128,  2. 

comeies,  decl.,  22. 

comitia,  as  time  expression,  230,  i. 

Commanding,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  187,  II; 
subst.  clause  w.  verbs  of,  295,  i ; 
commands  expressed  by  jussive  subjv., 
27s;  by  imperative,  281. 

Common  gender,  15,  B,  n.  i. 

nouns,  12,  I. 

syllables,  5,  ii,  3. 

commonefacio,  w.  gen.  and  ace,  207. 

commoneo,  w.  gen.  and  ace,  207. 

communis,  w.  gen.,  204,  2;  with  dat. 
204,  2,  a. 

commuto,  w.  abl.,  222,  A. 

Comparatives,  decl.,  69;  w.  abl.,  217; 
w.  quam,  217,  2,  occasional  meaning, 
240. 

,  two  required  in  Latin,  240,  4. 

Comparison  of  adjs.,  71  f.;  of  adverbs, 
76;  77. 

participles  as  adjs.,  71,  2. 

adjs.  in  -dicus,  -ficus,  -volus,  71,  5. 

defective,  73. 

abl.  of,  217. 

Comparison,  conditional,  307. 

Compendiary  comparison,  374,  2,  b) ; 
w.  result  clauses,  284,  4;  w.  clauses  of 
characteristic,  283,  2,  a. 

Completed  action,  tenses  expressing, 
262-4;   267,  3. 

Compounds,  158  f. ;   spelling  of,  9,  2, 

Compound  sentences,  164. 

verbs  governing  ace,  175,  2,  a;  gov- 
erning dat.,  187,  III;   188,  2,  d. 

Conative  uses  of  pres.,  259,  2 ;  of  imperf ., 
260,  3 ;  of  pres.  partic,  336,  2,  a. 

Concessive  clauses,  308;  'although'  as 
accessory  idea  to  clause  of  character- 
istic, 283,  3. 

• subjunctive,  278. 

Conclusion,  see  Apodosis. 

Concrete  nouns,  12,  2,  a). 

Condemning,  verbs  of,  constr.,  208,  f . 

Conditional  clauses  of  comparison,  307. 

sentences,  ist  type  (nothing  im- 
plied), 302;  in  indir.  disc,  319;  2d 
type  ('should '-'would'),  303 ;  in  indir. 
disc,  320;  3d  type  (contrary  to  fact), 
304;  in  indir.  disc,  321;  abl.  abs. 
equivalent  to,  227,  2,  b) ;  introduced 
by  relative  pronouns,  312;  general 
conditions,  302,  2 ;  3 ;  indicative  in  con- 


sections  and  paragraphs. 

trary-to-fact  apodoses,  304,  3 ;  protasis 
omitted  or  implied,  305,  i ;  protasis 
contained  in  imperative,  or  jussive 
subjv.,  305,  2 ;  employment  of  nisi,  si 
non,  sin,  si  minus,  306;  conditional 
relative  sentences,  312,  2. 

confido,  w.  abl.,  219,  i,  a. 

Conjugation,  1 1 ;  93  f. ;  the  four  conju- 
gations, 98;  periphrastic,  115;  pecul- 
iarities of  conj.,  116. 

Conjunctions,  145,  i ;  341  f . 

Conor,  with  inf.,  295,  5,  a. 

Consecutive  clauses,  see  Result  clauses. 

consistere,  with  abl.,  218,  4. 

Consonant  stems,  nouns,  29  f. ;  adjs., 
70,  I. 

partially  adapted  to  ^-stems,  40. 

Consonants,  2,  2  f. ;  pronunciation,  3,  3. 

,  double,  2,  9. 

combinations  of,    in   division   into 

syllables,  4,  2  f. 

Consonant  changes,  8 ;  omission  of  finals, 
8,  3 ;  assimilation  of,  8,  4  f . 

stems,    29;     following    analogy   of 

«-stems,  40. 

conspicio,  conj.,  109,  2,  b). 

constdre,  w,  abl.,  218,  4. 

Construction  ace  to  sense,  254,  4;  235, 
B,  2,  c). 

consuetado  est,  with  subjv.  substantive 
clause,  297,  3. 

consuevi  =  pres.,  262,  A. 

consuldris,  abl.  sing,  of,  70,  5,  a. 

Contending,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  358,  3. 

contentus,  w.  abl.,  219,  i. 

contineri,  with  abl.,  218,  4. 

contingit  ut,  297,  2. 

Continued  action,  tenses  for,  257,  i,  b. 

contra,  prep.  w.  ace,  141 ;  as  adv.,  144,  i. 

Contraction,  7,  2. 

,  length  of  vowel  as  result  of,  5,  Ay 

i,&). 

Contrary-to-fact  conditions,  304. 

Convicting,  verbs  of,  constr.,  208  f. 

Coordinate  clauses,  165. 

conjunctions,  341  f . 

copia,  copiae,  61. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  341. 

cor,  lacks  gen.  plu.,  57,  7. 

cornu,  decl.,  48. 

Correlative  conjunctions,  341,  3 ;  342,  2. 

adverbs,  140. 

cottidie,  spelling,  9,  2. 


Countries,  gender  of, 

Crime,  gen.  of,  208, 

-crum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

-culum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

-cuius  (a,  um),  suffix,  148,  i. 

cum,  appended,  142,  4. 

cum  (conj.),  'when,'  288-290;  'when- 
ever,' 288,  3. 

adversative,  309,  3. 

causal,  286,  2, 

explicative,  290. 

to  denote  a  recurring  action,  288,  3 ; 

289,  a. 

inversum,  288,  2. 

cum  .  .  .  turn,  290,  2. 

cum  prlmum,  287,  i. 

cum,  spelling  of,  9,  i. 

cum  (prep.)  ,  with  abl.  of  manner,  220; 
with  abl.  of  accompaniment,  222;  ap- 
pended to  prons.,  142,  4. 

-cundus,  suffix,  150,  i. 

cupio,  conj.,  109,  2,  a) ;  with  subst. 
clause  developed  from  optative,  296; 
w.  inf.,  331,  IV,  and  a. 

cur,  nulla  causa  est  cur,  w.  subjv.,  295,  7. 

curd,  with  gerundive  const,  as  obj.,  337, 
8,  b,  2. 

Customary  action,  259,  i ;   260,  2. 


D. 

D,  changed  to  5,  8,  2 ;  d  final  omitted,  8, 

3 ;  assimilated,  8,  4. 
Dactyl,  366,  2. 
Dactylic  hexameter,  368. 

pentameter,  369. 

dapis,  defective,  57,  6. 

Daring,  verbs  of,  with  obj.  inf.,  328,  i. 

Dates,  371,  2-5;    as  indeclinable  nouns, 

371,  6;  in  leap  vear,  371,  7. 
Dative,  17;  irregular,  ist  decl.,  21,  2,  c) ; 

3d  decl.,  47,  5 ;  4th  decl.,  49,  2 ;  3 ;  sth 

decl.,  52,  I  and  3  ;   186  ff. 

in  the  gerundive  const.,  339,  7. 

of  agency,  189. 

of  direction  and  limit  of  motion,  193. 

of  indir.  obj.,  187. 

of  advantage  or  disadvantage,   so 

called,  188,  I. 

of  local  standpoint,  188,  2,  a). 

of  person  judging,  188,  2,  c). 

of  possession,  190;  359,  i. 

of  purpose  or  tendency,  191 ;  339,  7. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 
26,  I,  a. 
;   2. 


269 


of  reference,  188. 

of  separation,  188,  2,  d). 

•  of  the  gerund,  338,  2. 

with  adjs.,  192 ;  with  proprius,  com- 
munis, 204,  2 ;  similis,  204,  3. 

with  compound  verbs,  187,  III, 

with  intrans.  verbs,  187,  II. 

with  nomen  est,  190,  i. 

with  impersonal  pass,  verbs,    187, 

11,  b. 

with  trans,  verbs,  187,  I. 

— '■ —  with  verbs  of  mingUng,  358,  3. 

ethical  dat.,  188,  2,  b). 

de,  prep.  w.  abl.,  142 ;  with  abl.  instead 
of  gen.  of  whole,  201,  i,  a;  with  verbs 
of  reminding,  207,  a;  compounds  of 
de  governing  dat.,  188,  2,  d;  de  vi,  with 
verbs  of  accusing  and  convicting,  208, 
3 ;  with  gerund  and  gerundive,  338, 
A,h. 

dea,  dedbus,  21,  2,  e). 

debebam,  debut  in  apodosis,  304,  3,  a). 

debeo,  governing  obj.  inf.,  328,  i. 

debul,  with  pres.  inf.,  270,  2. 

decemvir,  gen.  plu.  of,  25,  6,  b). 

decerno,  w.  subst.  clause  developed  from 
volitive,  295,  4. 

decet,  w.  ace,  175,  2,  c). 

Declarative  sentences,  defined,  161,  i ; 
in  indir.  disc,  314. 

Declension,  11;  heteroclites,  59. 

,  stems  and  gen.  terminations,  18. 

,  ist  decl.,   20-22;   2d  decl.,  23-27; 

3d  decl.,  28-47;  4th  decl.,  48-50;  5th 
decl.  51-53;  of  Greek  nouns,  22;  27; 
47 ;  of  adjs.,  62-69 ;  of  prons.,  84-90. 

Decreeing,  verbs  of,  w.  subjv.,  295,  4. 

dedecet,  175,  2,  c). 

Defective  verbs,  133  f. ;  nouns,  54  f. ;  52, 
4;   57;   comparison,  73. 

Definite  perfect,  see  Present  perfect. 

Degree  of  difference,  abl.  of,  223. 

Degrees  of  comparison,  71  ff. 

delectat,  w.  inf.  as  subj.,  327,  i. 

delector,  w.  abl.  of  cause,  219. 

DeUberative  subjv.,  277 ;  in  indir.  ques- 
tions, 300,  2;  in  indir.  disc,  315,  3. 

Demanding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  178, 
i;  w.  subst.  clause,  295,  i. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  87;  246;  of 
ist,  2d,  and  3d  persons,  87 ;  position  of 
demonstratives,  350,  5,  a. 

Denominative  verbs,  156^ 


270 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Dental  mutes,  2,  4. 

stems,  ss. 

Dependent  clauses,  282  ff. 

Deponent  verbs,  112;  forms  with  passive 

meanings,    112,    b) ;     semi-deponents, 

114. 
Depriving,  verbs  of,  w.  abl.,  214,  i,  b. 
Derivatives,  147  f. 
-des,  patronymics  in,  148,  6. 
Description,   imperf.   as    tense  of,    260, 

I,  a. 
Desideratives,  155,  3. 
Desire,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204,  i ;    verbs 

of,  w.  subst.  clauses,  296,  i. 
deterior,  73,  i. 
deus,  decl.,  25,  4, 
devertor,  114,  3. 
dexter,  decl.,  65,  i. 
di-,  159,  3,  N. 

Diaeresis,  366,  8;  bucolic  d.,  368,  3,  d). 
Diastole,  367,  2. 
die,  116,  3. 

dlcitur,  dictum  est,  w.  inf.,  332,  note. 
died,  accent  of  compounds  of,  in  impera- 
tive, 116,  3. 
-dicus,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71,  5. 
Dido,  decl.,  47,  8. 
dies,  decl.,  51;  gender,  53. 
Difference,  abl.  of  degree  of,  223. 
difficile  est  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  i,  b). 
difficilis,  comp.,  71,  4. 
dignor,  with  abl.,  226,  2. 
dignus,  226,  2 ;  in  rel.  clauses  of  purpose, 

282,  3. 
Dimeter,  verses,  366,  11. 
Diminutives,  148,  i. 
Diphthongs,  2,  i ;  3,  2 ;  diphthong  stems, 

41 ;   diphthongs  shortened,  362,  2. 
diphthongus,  gender  of,  26,  i,  c). 
Dipodies,  366,  11. 
Direct  reflexives,  244,  i. 

object,  172. 

quotation,  313. 

discourse,  313. 

questions,  162. 

dis-,  in  compounds,  159,  3,  n. 
Disjunctive  conjunctions,  342. 
dissimilis,  comp.,  71,4. 
Distributives,   63,    2;    78,    i;     79;    81, 

4- 
diu,  compared,  77,  i. 
dives,  decl.,  70,  i;  compared,  71,  6. 
dlxtl,  116,  4,  c. 


do,  conj.,  127. 

doceo,  with  ace,   178,   i,  b) ;    with  inf., 

331,  VI. 
doml,  locative,  232,  2. 
domo,  229,  I,  b). 
domos,  182,  I,  b. 
domum,  182,  i,  b) ;   'house,'  in  ace,  182, 

N. 

domus,  decl.,  49,  4;  gender,  50. 

donee,  with  ind.,  293;  with  subjv.,  293, 
III,  2. 

dono,  constr.,  187,  i,  a. 

dos,  gender,  44,  3. 

Double  consonants,  2,  9. 

questions,  162,  4;  indirect,  300,  4. 

Doubting,  verbs  of,  w.  quin,  298. 

Dubitative  subjunctive,  see  Deliberative. 

dubito,  dubium  est,  non  dubito,  non  dubium 
est,  with  quln,  298 ;  non  dubito  w.  inf., 
298,  a. 

dUc,  116,  3. 

duco,  accent  of  compounds  of,  in  imper., 
116,  3. 

duim,  duint,  127,  2. 

-dum,  6,  3. 

dum,  temporal  with  ind.,  293;  with 
subjv.,  293,  III,  2 ;  in  wishes  and 
provisos,  310. 

dummodo,  310. 

duo,  decl.,  80,  2. 

Duration  of  time,  181,  2. 

Duty,  expressed  by  gerundive,  189; 
337,  8;  verbs  of  duty  in  conclusion 
of  cond.  sentences  contrary-to-fact, 
304,  3,  a;  subst.  clauses  dependent 
on  verbs  of,  295,  6;  inf.  w.  verbs  of 
duty,  327,  i;  328,  I ;  330;  'it  is  the 
duty  of,'  198,  3;  'I  perform  a  duty,' 
218,  I. 

duumvir,  gen.  plu.  of,  25,  6,  b). 

dux,  decl.,  32. 


e,  as  vowel,  2,  i ;  as  second  member  of 
diphthongs,  2,  i ;  sound  of,  3,  i ; 
change,  to  t,  7,  i,  a;  for  c,  7,  i,  c;  in 
voc.  sing,  of  2d  decl.,  23 ;  in  abl. 
sing,  of  3d  decl.,  31 ;  dropped  in  nom. 
of  neuters  of  3d  decl.,  39 ;  -e  for  -I  in 
abl.  of  mare,  39;  alternating  w.  I 
in  abl.  sing,  of  i-stems,  37,  38 ;  for  e  in 
gen.  sing,  of  5th  decl.,  52,  i ;  in  abl. 
sing,  of  adjs.  of  3d  decl.,  70,  i ;   3 ;  in 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


271 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


ben^  and  male,  77,  i ;  distinguishing 
vowel  of  3d  conj.,  98;  before  y,  362, 
5 ;  for  -e  in  imperatives,  363,  2,  b;  in 
temere  and  saepe,  363,  2,  c. 

e,  pronunciation,  3,  i ;  by  contraction,  7, 
2;  as  ending  of  Greek  nouns,  22; 
e-stems,  51 ;  ending  of  dat.  of  5th  decl., 
52,  3 ;  distinguishing  vowel  of  2d 
conj.,  98;  -e  in  fame,  363,  2,  a;  in 
adverbs,  363,  2,  c. 

■€,  ex,  use,  142,  2 ;   see  ex. 

ecquis,  91,  6. 

edic,  116,  3. 

Editorial  'we,'  242,  3. 

■edd,  128. 

e^/MC,  116,  3. 

■efficio  ut,  297,  I. 

efficitur  ut,  297,  2. 

Effort,  subjv.  w.  verbs  of,  295,  5. 

eged,  w.  abl.,  214,  i,  c. 

ego,  84. 

egomet,  84,  2. 

-e?',  diphthong,  2,  i ;  3,  2. 

-ei,  gen.  of  5th  decl.,  52,  i. 

~eis,  148,  6,  6). 

ejus,  as  poss.,  86,  i ;  quantity,  362,  5. 

Elegiac  distich,  369,  2. 

Elision,  266,  7. 

Ellipsis,  374,  I. 

-e//M^  {a,  urn),  148,  i. 

Emphasis,  349. 

Enclitics,  accent  of  preceding  syllable, 
6,3. 

,  -met,  84,  2 ;  -pte,  86,  3 ;  c«w  as  en- 
clitic, 142,  4. 

End  of  motion,  see  Limit. 

Endings,  case  endings,  17,  3;  personal, 
of  verb,  96 ;  in  formation  of  words,  147  f . 

enim,  345. 

-ensimus  {-ensumus),  79,  n. 

-ensis,  151,  2;   152,  3. 

Envy,  verbs  of,  with  dat.,  187,  II. 

eo,  132 ;   cpds.,  132,  i. 

Epexegetical  genitive,  202. 

Epistolary  tenses,  265. 

epistida,  spelhng,  9,  2. 

epitome,  decl.,  22. 

epulum,  epulae,  60,  2. 

equdhus,  21,  2,  e). 

equester,  decl.,  68,  i. 

equos,  decl.,  24. 

~er,  decl.,  of  nouns  in,  23  ;  adjs.,  63  ;  64 ; 
65;    68;    adjs.  in  -er  compared,  71,  3. 


erga,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

ergo,  344,  I,  b). 

-emus,  suffix,  154. 

-is,  gender  of  nouns  in,  43,  i ;  exception, 

44,  5 ;   in  nom.  plu.  of  Greek  nouns  of 

3d  decl.,  47,  2. 
-es,  ending  of  Greek  nouns,  nom.  sing. 

in,  22. 

,  gen.  -is,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  40,  i,  a). 

esse,  conjugation  of,  100 ;   compounds  of, 

125;   126;  6556  omitted,  116,  5. 
est  qui,  with  subj.,  283,  2. 
et,  341,  I,  a;  in  enumerations,  341,  4,  c). 
et  is,  247,  4. 
et  .  .  .  neque,  341,  3. 
Ethical  dative,  188,  2,  b). 
etiam,  in  answers,  162,  5. 
et  non,  341,  2,  c). 
etsl,  'although,'  309,  2;    etsl,  'even  if,' 

309,  2,  a. 
-etum,  suffix,  148,  3. 
-eus,  inflection  of  Greek  nouns  in,  47,  6 ; 

adj.  suffix,  151,  I. 
evenit  ut,  297,  2. 
ex,  142,  2 ;   with  abl.,  instead  of  gen.  of 

whole,  201,  I,  a;   compounds  of,  with 

dat.,   188,  2,  d;    with  abl.  of  source, 

215,  I. 
Exchanging,  verbs  of,  with  abl.  of  asso- 
ciation, 222,  A. 
Exclamation,  ace.  of,  183. 
Exclamatory  sentences,  161,  3. 
Expectancy,  clauses  denoting,  in  subjv., 

292,  I ;   293,  III,  2. 
exposed,  constr.,  178,  i,  a), 
exsisto,  speUing,  9,  2. 
exspecto,  spelhng,  9,  2. 
exteri,  exterior,  73,  2. 
extremus,  use,  241,  i. 
exuo,  w.  abl.,  214,  i,  b. 


/,  pronunciation,  3,  3;    nf,  quantity  of 

vowel  before,  5,  i,  a. 
fac,  116,  3 ;  with  subjv.,  295,  5. 
facile,  77,  3- 
facilis,  comp.,  71,  4. 
facio,  109,  2,  a);  pass,  of,  131. 

. ,  in  imper.,  116,  3. 

falsus,  comparison,  73,  3. 

fame,  59,  2,  b). 

FamiHarity,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204,  i. 


272 


familids,  21,  2,  a). 

fdri,  136. 

fas,  indeclinable,  58, 

fauces,  decl.,  40,  i,  d). 

Favor,  verbs  signifying,  with  dat.,  187,  II. 

Fearing,  verbs  of,  constr.,  296,  2. 

febris,  decl.,  38,  i. 

felix,  70. 

Feminine,  see  Gender. 

Feminine  caesura,  368,  3,  c. 

femur,  decl.,  42,  4. 

-fer,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  23,  2 ;  adjs.  65,  i. 

fero,  and  its  compounds,  129. 

-ficus,  comparison  of  adjs.  in,  71,  5. 

fidet,  52,  I. 

fido,  114,  I ;  with  abl.,  219,  i,  a. 

fidus,  compared,  73,  3. 

fterem,  fieri,  362,   i,  c;   fieri  potest  ut, 

298,  2. 
Fifth  decl.,  51  f. 
Figures  of  rhetoric,  375. 

of  syntax,  374. 

fili,  25,  3. 

filia,  filidbus,  21,  2,  e). 

Filling,  verbs  of,  w.  abl.,  218,  8. 

Final  clauses,  see  Purpose  clauses. 

Final  consonant  omitted,  8,  3. 

Final  syllables,  quantity,  363,  364. 

finis,  fines,  61. 

Finite  verb,  95, 

fiq,  conj.,  131. 

fid,  with  abl.,  218,  6. 

First  conj.,  loi ;   principal  parts  of  verbs 

of,  120;    deponents  of  ist  conj.,  113. 
First  decl.,  20  f. ;  pecuUarities,  21 ;  Greek 

nouns  of  ist  decl.,  22. 
fit  ut,  297,  2. 

fldgitd,  constr.,  178,  i,  a), 
fodid,  conj.,  icJg,  2,  o). 
Foot,  in  verse,  366,  2. 
'For,'  its  Latin  equivalents,  358,  i. 
fore,  page  57,  footnote  3. 
fore  ut,  270,  3  ;   297,  2. 
forem,  fores,  etc.,  page  57,  footnote  2. 
foris,  228,  I,  c. 
Formation  of  words,  146  f . 
fors,  forte,  57,  2,  a. 
fortior,  decl.,  69. 
fortis,  decl.,  69. 
fortHna,  fortunae,  61. 
Fourth  conj.,  107. 
Fourth  decl.,  48;  dat.  in  -w,  49,  2;  gen. 

in  -i,  49, 1 ;  dat.  abl.  plu.  in  -uhus,  49,  3. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 

fraude,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 


Free,  abl.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  214,  i,  d. 

Freeing,  abl.  w.  verbs  of,  214,  i,  a. 

frenum,  plu.  of,  -60,  2. 

Frequentatives,  155,  2. 

fretus  w.  abl.,  218,  3. 

Fricatives,  2,  7. 

Friendly,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  192,  i. 

fructus,  decl.,  48. 

frUgi,  compared,  72;   70,  6. 

frUgis,  57,  6. 

fruor,  with  abl.,   218,   i;    in  gerundive 

constr.,  339,  4. 
fugid,  conj.,  109,  2,  a), 
fui,  fuisti,  etc.,  for  sum,  es,  etc.,  in  com- 
pound tenses,  p.  60,  footnote;    p.  61, 

footnote. 
Fullness,  adjs.  of,  w.  abl.,  218,  8 ;  w.  gen., 

204,  I. 
fungor,   w.   abl.,    218,    i;    in  gerundive 

constr.,  339,  4. 
fUr,  decl.,  40,  i,  d). 
fUrtd,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2.  . 
Future  tense,  261 ;   w.  imperative  force, 

261,  3. 

time  in  the  subjv.,  269. 

perfect,  264 ;   with  future  meaning, 

133,  2 ;   inf.,  270,  4. 

imperative,  281,  i. 

infinitive,  270,  i,  c ;  periphrastic  fut. 

inf.,  270,  3,  and  a, 

participle,  337,  4- 

futurum  esse  ut,  with  subjv.,  270,  3. 


gauded,  semi-deponent,  114,  i. 

gemd,  w.  ace,  175,  2,  b. 

Gender,  13-15;  in  ist  decl.,  20,  21;  in 
2d  decl.,  23 ;  exceptions,  26 ;  in  3d 
decl.,  43  f. ;  in  4th  decl.,  50;  in  sth 
decl.,  S2> ;  determined  by  endings,  14 ; 
by  signification,  15,  .4  ;  heterogeneous 
nouns,  60. 

gener,  decl.,  23,  2. 

General  relatives,  312,  i ;  general  truths, 
259,  I ;  262,  B,  I ;  'general'  conditions, 
302,  2;  3. 

Genitive,  17 ;  in  -i  for  -ii,  25,  i  and  2 ;  of 
4th  decl.,  in  -i,  49,  i ;  of  5th  decl.  in  -i, 
52,  2;  of  5th  decl.  in  -ei,  52,  i ;  in  -e, 
52,  3 ;  of  ist  decl.  in  -di,  21,  2,  b) ;  of 
ist  decl.  in  -ds,  21,  2,  a) ;  gen.  plu.  -um 


GENERAL   INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs 

2,  d); 


273 


for  -drum,  21,  2,  d) ;  -um  for-  drum, 
25,  6 ;  63,  2  ;  -MW  for  -ium,  70,  7 ;  gen. 
plu.  lacking,  57,  7 ;   syntax  of,  194  f . 

of  characteristic,  203,  i. 

of  charge  with  judicial  verbs,  208. 

of  indefinite  price,  203,  4. 

of  indefinite  value,  203,  3. 

of  material,  197. 

of  measure,  203,  2. 

of  origin,  196. 

of  possession,  198. 

of  quaUty,  203. 

of  the  whole,  201. 

appositional,  202. 

objective,  200. 

of  separation,  212,  3. 

subjective,  199. 

with  adjs.,   204;    with  participles, 

204,  I,  a. 

with,  causa,  gratia,  198,  i. 

with  verbs,  205  f . ;    of  plenty  and 

want,  212;  with  impers.  verbs,  209. 

position  of  gen.,  350,  i. 

genus,  decl.,  36;  id  genus,  185,  i. 

,-ger,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  23,  2 ;  adjs.,  65,  i. 

Gerund,  95,  i;  ist  conj.,  loi ;  2d  conj., 
103;  3d  conj.,  105;  4th  conj.,  107; 
sj'ntax,  338;  with  object,  338,  5. 

Gerundive,  95,  i;  ist  conj.,  102;  2d 
conj.,  104;  3d  conj.,  106;  4th:  conj., 
108;  in  periphrastic  conj.,  lis;  337,8. 

Gerundive,  const.,  339,  1-6;  in  passive 
periphrastic  conj.,  337,  8  f. ;  gen.  de- 
noting purpose,  339,  6;  with  dat.  of 
purpose,  191,  3;  339,  f. 

gndrus,  not  compared,  75j  2. 

Gnomic  present,  259,  i;    perfect,  262,  i. 

gradior,  conj.,  109,  2,  c. 

Grammatical  gender,  15. 

grdtid,  with  gen.,  198,  i ;  grdiia,  grdtiae, 
6i. 

Greek  nouns,  ist  decl.,  22  ;  2d  decl.,  27 ; 
exceptions  in  gender,  26,  i,  c) ;  3d 
decl.,  47 ;  Greek  ace,  180;  Greek  nouns 
in  verse,  365. 

grus,  decl.,  41,  2. 

gu  =  gv,  3,  3. 

Guttural  mutes,  2,  4. 

stems,  32. 

H. 

h,  pron.,  3,  3;  ph,  ch,  th,  2,  4;  2,,  3- 
habed,  with  perf.  pass,  partic,  337,  6. 


dat.,    187, 


foot- 


29s, 


331, 


Hadria,  gender,  21,  i. 

Happening,  verbs  of,  w.  ind.,  299,  i,  2; 

w.  subjv.,  297,  2. 
Hard  consonants,  2,  3,  a),  footnote  i. 
Hardening,  367,  4. 
haud,    use,    347,    2,    a;     haud   scid    an, 

300,  5. 
have,  137,  5. 
Help,    verbs    signifying,    w. 

n. 

Hendiadys,  374,  4. 

herl,  locative,  232,  2. 

Heteroclites,  59. 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  60. 

Hexameter,  dactyUc,  368. 

Hiatus,  366,  7,  a. 

hlc,  87 ;    246,  I ;    246,  2 ;   hlc,  364, 

note. 
hiems,  35,  footnote. 
Hindering,   verbs  of,   with  subjv., 

3- 
Historical  tenses,  258 ;  historical  present, 

259,  3 ;  268,  3 ;  historical  perfect,  262, 

B;  historical  infinitive,  335. 
honor,  decl.,  36. 
Hoping,  verbs  of,  w.  inf., 
Hortatory  subjv.,  274. 
hortus,  decl.,  23. 
hdscine,  87,  footnote  i. 
hostis,  decl.,  38. 
hujusce,  87,  footnote  i, 
huml,  locative,  232,  2, 
humilis,  comp.,  71,  4. 
humus,  gender  of,  26,  i,  h). 
huncine,  87,  footnote  i. 
Hyperbaton,  350,  11,  a). 
Hypermeter,  367,  6. 
Hysteron  proteron,  374,  7. 


«,  I,  I ;  in  diphthongs,  2,  i ;  pron.,  3,  i ; 
from  e,  7,  I,  a;  from  a,  7,  i,b;  dropped 
by  syncope,  7,4;  for  u  in  some  words, 
9,  I ;  changes  to  e,  39 ;  dropped,  39 ; 
final  i  short,  363,  3 ;    becomes  j,  367, 

4- 
J-stems,  37  ;  39 ;  not  always  ending  in  -is, 

38,  3. 
-i,  gen.  and  voc.  of  2d  decl.  nouns  in  -ius 

and  -ium  in,  25,  i  and  2. 

gen.  of  4th  decl.  nouns  in  -us,  49,  i. 

gen.  of  sth  decl.  nouns,  52,  2. 


274 


i-stem,  vfs,  41. 

i,  in  abl.,  3d  decl.,  38,  i ;  39 ;  in  adjs.,  67, 
S,a;  70,5;  participles,  70,  3 ;  patrials, 
70,  s,  c) ;  nom.  plu.,  of  is,  87 ;  as  char- 
acteristic of  4th  conj.,  98. 

-ia,  149. 

Iambus,  366,  2. 

Iambic  measures,  370. 

trimeter,  370. 

-idnus,  suflBx,  152,  i. 

-ias,  sufl&x,  148,  6,  h). 

-ibam,  in  imperf.,  116,  4,  h). 

-Ibo,  in  future,  116,  4,  6). 

Ictus,  366,  5. 

-icM5,  suflSx,  151,  2;   152,  2. 

id  aetdtis,  185,  2. 

ii  genus,  185,  i. 

«(/  gwotf,  247,  I,  6. 

«(i  temporis,  185,  2. 

Ideal  'you';  see  Indefinite  second  per- 
son. 

idem,  87 ;   248. 

idem  ac,  248,  2. 

Ides,  371,  2,  c). 

-ides,  suflfix,  148,  6,  a). 

-ides,  suffix,  148,  6,  a). 

-ido,  sujQ5x,  147,  3,  c). 

idoneus,  not  compared,  74,  2;  w.  dat., 
192,  2;  w.  ad  and  ace,  192,  2,  and  N.  ; 
with  rel.  clause  of  purpose,  282,  3. 

4dus,  sufl&x,  150,  3. 

Idas,  fem.  by  exception,  50. 

-ie,  in  voc.  sing,  of  adjs.  in  -ius,  63,  i. 

iens,  pres.  partic.  from  eo,  132. 

-im5,  as  ending  of  numeral  adverbs,  97 
and  N. 

-ier,  inf.  ending,  116,  4,  a. 

-ies,  nouns  in,  51. 

igitur,  344,  I,  c). 

ignis,  decl.,  38. 

-4i,  in  gen.  sing,  of  i(J-stems,  25,  2. 

iis,  in  dat.  and  abl.  plu.  of  is,  87. 

■4le,  suflSx,  148,  3. 

//iow,  decl.,  27. 

-ilis,  sufl5x,  151,  2. 

-i/w,  sufl&x,  150,  4. 

Illative  conjunctions,  344. 

ille,  87;  'the  following,'  246,  2;  'the 
former,'  246,  i;  'the  well-known,'  246, 
3 ;  position,  350,  5,  b. 

illuc,  87,  footnote  3. 

-illus  (a,  urn),  diminutive  sufl&x,  148,  i. 

-im,  in  ace,  3d  decl.,  38,  i. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 

-im,  -is  in  subjv.,  116,  4,  d. 


impedimentum,  impedimenta,  61. 

Imperative,  281 ;  tenses  in,  94,  3 ;  281, 
I ;   future  indie,  with  force  of,  261,  3. 

as  protasis  of  a  conditional  sent., 

305,   2 ;  as  apodosis,  302,  4. 

sent,  in  indir.  disc,  316. 

Imperfect  tense,  260;  co native,  260,  3; 
inceptive,  260,  3  ;  with  jaw,  etc.,  260,  4 ; 
epistolary  imp.,  265. 

Imperfect  subjv.  in  conditional  sent, 
referring  to  the  past,  304,  2. 

Impersonal  verbs,  138;  gen.  with,  209; 
dat.  with,  187,  II,  b ;  in  passive,  256,  3 ; 
with  substantive  clauses  developed 
from  volitive,  295,  6 ;  of  result,  297,  2  ; 
with  infin.,  327,  i ;   330. 

impetus,  defective,  57,  4. 

ImpHed  indir.  disc,  323. 

imus,  'bottom  of,'  241,  i. 

in,  prep.,  143 ;  verbs  compounded  w.  in 
governing  ace,  175,  2,  a,  2;  verbs 
compounded  w.  in  governing  dat., 
187,  lit 

in  with  abl.  of  place,  228;  with  abl.  of 
time,  230,  2;   231. 

-ina,  sufl5x,  148,  5. 

Inceptives,  155,  i. 

Inchoatives,  155,  i. 

Incomplete  action,  257,  i,  b;   267,  3. 

Indeclinable  adjs.,  70,  6 ;   80,  6. 

nouns,  58;  gender  of,  15,  3. 

Indefinite  price,  225,  i ;   203,  4. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  91;  252;  in  con- 
ditions, 302,  3. 

Indefinite  second  person,  280,  3 ;  356,  3 ; 
302,  2. 

Indefinite  value,  203,  3. 

Indicative,  equivalent  to  Eng.  subjv., 
271. 

in  apodosis  of  conditional  sent,  of 

3d  type,  304,  3,  a)  and  b). 

indiged,  constr.,  214,  i,  N.  2. 

indignus,  with  abl.,  226,  2;  with  rel. 
clause  of  purpose,  282,  3. 

Indirect  discourse,  defined,  313  f. ;  mood 
in,  3i3ff. ;  tenses  in,  317-18;  declara- 
tive sentences  in,  314;  interrog.  sen- 
tences in,  315 ;  imperative  sentences  in, 
316 ;  conditional  sentences  in,  319-22 ; 
verbs  introducing,  331,  i;  verb  of 
saying,  etc.,  implied,  314,  2;  ind.  in 
subord.  clauses  of  indir.  disc,  314,  3; 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


275 


inf.  for  subjv.  in  indir.  disc,  314,  4; 

subj.    ace.  omitted,    314,    s;    implied 

indir.  disc,  323. 
questions,  300 ;    particles  introduc- 
ing, 300,  I,  a;    deliberative  subjv.  in 
; ,   indir.  quest.,  300,  2 ;    indir.  quest,  w. 
,   si,   300,   3 ;    double  indir.   questions, 

300,    4 ;  *  in    indir.    quest.,    300,    6 ; 

in  conditional  sents.  of  3d  type,  322,  b. 

reflexives,  244,  2. 

object,  187.  . 

inferum,  Inferior,  73,  2. 

infimus,  241,  i. 

Infinitive,  gender  of,  15,  A,  s;    in  -ier, 

116,   4,   a;    force  of  tenses  in,    270; 

326  fif. 
fut.  perf.  inf.,  270,  4;    periphrastic 

future,  270,  3. 
without  subj.  ace,  326-328;    314, 

5- 

with  subj.  ace,  329-331- 

asobj.,  328;  331. 

as  subj.,  327 ;   330. 

with  adjs.,  ss3- 

denoting  purpose,  326,  N. 

in  abl.  abs.,  227,  3. 

in  exclamations,  334. 

historical  inf.,  335. 

infitids,  constr.,  182,  5. 

Inflection,  11. 

Inflections,  11  ff. 

Injrd,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

ingens,  comp.,  73,  4. 

injuria,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 

injussu,  defective,  57,  i;    the  abl.,  219, 

2. 
inl-  =  ill-,  9,  2. 
innlxus,  w.  abl.,  218,  3. 
inops,  decl.,  70,  2. 
inquam,  conj.,  134. 
Inseparable  prepositions,  159,  3,  n. 
insidiae,  plu.  only,  56,  3. 
Instar,  58. 

Instrumental  uses  of  abl.,  213  ;    218  ff. 
Intensive  pron.,  88. 
Intensives  (verbs),  155,  2. 
inter,  prep.  w.  ace,   141 ;    compounded 

w.  verbs,  governing  dat.  187,  III;    to 

express  reciprocal  relation,  245. 
interdico,  const.,  188,  i,  a. 
interest,  constr.,  210;   211. 
interior,  comp.,  73,  i. 
Interjections,  145. 


Interlocked  order,  350,  11,  d. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  90. 

sentences,   162;    particles,    162,   2; 

omitted,    162,   2,  d) ;    in  indir.  disc, 

315. 
intra,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 
Intransitive   verbs,    with   cognate   ace, 

176,  4;   in  passive,  256,  3;    187,  II,  h; 

impersonal  intransitives,  138,  IV. 
-Inus,  suffix,  151,  2;   152,  i;   152,  3. 
-id,  verbs  of  3d  conj.,  109. 
-ior,  ius,  comparative  ending,  71. 
ipse,  88;   249;   as  indir.  reflexive,  249,  3. 
ipsius  and  ipsorum,  with  possessive  pro- 
nouns, 243,  3. 
-ir,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  23. 
Irregular  comparison,  72  ff.;   nouns,  42; 

verbs,  124  f. 
is,  87;   247;  as  personal  pron.,  247,  2. 
-is,   as  patronymic  ending,   148,   6,   b) ; 

nouns  in  -is  of  3d  decl.,  37  f . ;   adjs.  in 

-is,  69. 
-is,  ace  plu.,  3d  decl.,  37 ;  40. 

,  -itis,  abl.  of  partials  in,  70,  5,  c). 

istaec,  87,  footnote  2. 

iste,  87;   246,  4. 

istic,  6,  4. 

tstiic,  6,  4;   87,  footnote  2. 

ita,  in  answers,  162,  5. 

itaque,  344,  i,  a). 

iter,  42,  I. 

-ttta,  149. 

-ito,  frequentatives  in,  155,  2,  a. 

-ium,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  25,  2 ;   ending  of 

gen.  plu.,  3d  decl.,  37  f.;  39;  40;   147, 

3,  6);   148,  2. 
-ius,  gen.  and  voe  sing,  of  nouns  in,  25, 

I  and  2;  of  adjs.,  63,  a;  151,2;  152,2; 

152,  3  ;   -Ius  for  ius,  362,  I,  a), 
-ivus,  suffix,  151,  2. 


J. 


J,  I,  2. 

jacio,  conj.,  109,  2,  a);  compounds  of,  9, 

3 ;  362,  5. 
jam,  etc.,  with  present  tense,  259,  4 ;  with 

imperfect,  260,  4. 
jecur,  decl.,  42,  3. 
joco,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 
jocus,  plu.  of,  60,  2. 
Joining,  verbs  of,  construction,  358,  3. 
jubed,  constr.,  295,  i,  a;  331,  II. 


276 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  references  are  to 
judicor,  w.  inf.,  332,  c. 
jugerum,  59,  i. 
Julian  calendar,  371. 
jungo,  w.  abl.,  222,  A. 
Juppiter,  decl.,  41. 
jurdius,  114,  2. 
jure,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 
jus  est,  with  substantive  clause,  297,  3. 
jussu,  57,  I ;  the  abl.,  219,  2. 
Jussive  subjv.,  275 ;  equiv.  to  a  protasis, 

305,  2. 
juvat,  w.  ace,  175,  2,  c) ;  with  inf.,  327,  i, 
Juvendle,  abl.,  70,  5,  6. 
juvenis,  a  cons,  stem,  38,  2 ;  comparison, 

73,  4- 
y^DO,  with  ace,  187,  II,  n. 
juxtd,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 


k,  I,  I. 

Knowing,  verbs  of,  w.  inf.,  331,  I. 

Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204, 

L. 

/,  pron,,  3,  3. 
Labial  mutes,  2,  4. 

stems,  31 ;  gender  of,  43,  3 ;  46,  i. 

lacer,  decl.,  65,  i. 

locus,  decl.,  49,  3. 

laedo,  w.  ace,  187,  II,  N, 

laeius,  w.  adverbial  force,  239. 

lapis,  decl.,  33. 

largior,  113. 

Latin  period,  351,  5'. 

Length  of  syllables,  5,  B. 

Length  of  vowels,  5,  A . 

-lenius,  suffix,  151,  3. 

led,  decl.,  35. 

Liber,  decl.,  23,  2. 

liber,  adj.,  decl.,  65,  i. 

libera,  constr.,  214,  i,  N.  i. 

liber ta,  liber tdbus,  21,  2,  e). 

liberum,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  c). 

/ice^,  with  subjv.,  295,  6  and  8;    308,  a] 

with  inf.,  327,  I ;  330. 
licet,  adversative,  309,  4. 
Likeness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  192,  1. 
Limit  of  motion,  ace  of.,  182. 
Lingual   mutes,  2,  4. 
linter,  decl.,  40. 
Liquids,  2,  5. 
stems,  34. 


sections  and  paragraphs. 

lis,  decl.,  40,  1,  d). 

Litotes,  375,  i. 

litter  a,  litter  ae,  61, 

Locative,  17,  i ;  in  -ae,  21,  2,  c);  in  -I, 
25>  S;  syntax,  232;  apposition  with, 
169,  4;  loe  uses  of  abl.,  213 ;   228  f. 

loco,  locis,  the  abl.,  228,  i,  6, 

locus,  plurals  of,  60,  2. 

Long  syllables,  5,  5,  i. 

vowels,  5,  A,  I. 

longius  =  longius  quam,  271,  3. 

longum  est  =  Eng.  potential,  217,  i,  b. 

lubet,  lubidd,  spelling,  9,  i. 

ladis,  the  abl.,  230,  i. 

-lus,  -la,  -lum,  diminutives  in,  148,  i. 

lax,  57,  7. 

« 
M. 

m,  pron.,  3,  3 ;   changed  to  n  before  (f,  c, 

8,  5,  c;  w-stem,  35,  footnote;   w-final 

in  poetry,  366,  10. 
maered,  w.  ace,  175,  2,  b. 
magis,   comparison,   77,    i ;    comparison 

with,  74. 
magni,  gen.  of  value,  203,  3. 
magnopere,  compared,  77,  i. 
magnus,  compared,  72. 
Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  accusatives, 

177- 
male,  comparison,  77,  i. 
maledicens,  comparison,  71,  5,  a). 
mdlim,  potential  subjv.,  280,  2,  a. 
mdllem,  potential  subjv.,  280,  4. 
mdld,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV,  and  a;  with 

subjv.,  296,  I,  a. 
malus,  comparison,  72. 
mdne,  indecUnable,  58. 
Manner,  abl.  of,  220. 
mare,  decl.,  39,  2;  mart,  228,  i,  c). 
mas,  decl.,  40,  1,  d). 
Masculine,  see  Gender. 
Masculine  caesura,  368,  3,  c. 
Material,  abl.  of,  224,  3. 
mdteries,  mdteria,  59,  2,  a). 
mdture,  compared,  77,  i. 
mdtUrus,  compared,  71,  3. 
maxime,  adjs.  compared  with,  74. 
maximi,  as  gen.  of  value,  203,  3. 
maxumus,  9,  i. 
Means,  abl.  of,  218,  abl.  abs.  denoting, 

227,  2;   denoted  by  partie,  337,  2,  d. 
med,  for  mS,  84,  3. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


277 


Mediae  (consonants),  2,  3,  b),  footnote  2. 

medius,  'middle  of,'  241,  i. 

met,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 

melior,  comparison,  72. 

melius  est  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  i,  b). 

memini,  133;   constr.,  206,  i,  a;   2,  a. 

memor,  decl.,  70,  2. 

-men,  -mentum,  suffixes,  147,  4. 

mensis,  38,  2,  footnote  i. 

mentem  {in  meniem  venire),  206,  3. 

-we/,  enclitic,  6,  3 ;   84,  2. 

Metrical  close  of  sent.,  350,  12. 

metud,  w.  subjv.,  296,  2. 

wi,  dat.,  84,  I. 

mi,  voc.  of  meus,  86,  2. 

Middle  voice,  verbs  in,  175,  2,  d). 

miles,  decl.,  33. 

mllitiae,  locative,  232,  2. 

wi//e,  wf/za,  decl.,  80,  5. 

minime,  comparison,  77,   i ;  in  answers, 

162,  5,  b). 
minimus,  comparison,  72. 
minor,  comparison,  72. 
minoris,  gen.  of  value,  203,  3 ;    of  pricq, 

203,  4- 
minus,  comparison,  77,  i ;  =  minus  quam, 

217,  3;   quo  minus,  295,  3;  si  minus, 

306,  2  and  a. 
miror,  conj.,  113. 
mirus,  comparison,  75,  2. 
miscere,  with  abl.,  222,  ^  ;  with  dat.,  358, 

3- 
misereor,  with  gen.,  209,  2. 
miser esco,  with  gefi.,  209,  2. 
miseret,  constr.,  209. 
Mixed  stems,  40. 
modium,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  a). 
modo,  in  wishes  and  provisos,  310. 
moneo,  103;   constr.,  178,  i,  d). 
months,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  i ;  decl., 

68,  I ;  abl.,  of  month  names,  70,  5,  a) ; 

names,  371,  i. 
Moods,  94,  2. 

in  independent  sentences,  271  f. 

in  dependent  clauses,  282  f. 

Mora,  366,  I. 
morior,  conj.,  109,  2,  c). 
mos,  decl.,  36;  mores,  61. 
mos  est,  with  subjv.  clause,  297,  3. 
muliebre  secus,  constr.,  185,  i. 
Multiplication,  distributives  used  to  in- 
dicate, 81,  4,  c. 
multum,  77,  3  ;  compared,  77,  i. 


multus,  compared,  72 ;  with  another  adj., 

241,  3. 
mils  decl.,  40,  i,  d). 
mutdre,  with  abl.,  222,  A. 
Mutes,  2,  3.  .        * 

Mute  stems,  30. 

N. 

n,  pronunciation,  s,  s',  w-stems,  35. 

n  adulter inum,  2,  6. 

-nam,  appended  to  quis,  90,  2,  d. 

Names,  Roman,  373. 

Naming,  verbs  of,  w.   two   accusatives, 

177,  I. 
Nasals,  2,  6. 
Nasal  stems,  35. 
ndtii,    57,    I ;    maximus   ndtu,    minimus 

ndtic,  73,  4,  footnotes  4,  5;   226,  i. 
Natural  gender,  14. 
ndtus,  constr.,  215. 
ndvis,  decl.,  41,  4. 
nd,  vowel  short  before,  5,  2,  a. 
-ne,  6,  3  f. ;  162,  2,  c) ;  300,  i,  b);  -ne  .  .  . 

an,  162,  4;  in  indir.  double  questions, 

300,  4.     ^ 
ne,  in  prohibitions,  276;   with  hortatory 

subjv.,  274;  with  concessive,  278;  with 

optative,  279;  in  purpose  clauses,  282  ; 

in  substantive  clauses,  295  f .,  296 ;  in 

provisos,  310. 
ne,  '  lest,'  282,  i ;   296,  2. 
ne  non  for  ut  after  verbs  of  fearing,  296, 

2,  a. 
ne  .  .  .  quidem,  347,  i ;   2. 
Nearness,  adjs.  of,  w.  dat.,  192,  i. 
nee,  341,  I,  d) ;  nee  usquam,  341,  2,  d). 
necesse  est,  w.  subjv.,  295,  8. 
necne,  in  double  questions,  162,  4. 
nefds,  indeclinable,  58. 
Negatives,  347,  2 ;  two  negatives  strength- 
ening the  negati  n,  347,  2. 
nemo,  defective,  57,  3;  use,  252,  6. 
nequam,  indeclinable,  70,  6;    compared, 

72. 
neque,    341,    i,    d);     neque    in    purpose 

clauses,  282,  i,  e. 
nequeo,  conj.,  137,  i. 
ne  quis,  use,  91,  5. 
nequiter,  compared,  77,  i. 
nescio  an,  300,  5. 

nescid  quis,  as  indef .  pron.,  253,  6. 
Neuter,  see  Gender. 


278 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


neuter,  decl.,  66;  use,  92,  i. 

neve  (neu),  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  i,  d. 

nf,  quantity  of  vowel  before,  5,  i,  a. 

nihil,  indeclinable,  58. 

nihil  est  cur,  quin,  295,  7. 

ningit,  'it  snows,'  138,  i. 

nisi,  306,  I  and  4. 

nisi  forte,  306,  5. 

nisi  si,  306,  5. 

nisi  vero,  306,  5. 

nltor,  constr.,  218,  3. 

nix,  decl.,  ^o,  i,  d). 

No,  in  answers,  162,  5,  h. 

-no,  class  of  verbs,  117,  4. 

noli,  with  inf.,  in  prohibitions,  276,  h. 

nolim,  potential  subjv.,  280,  2,  a. 

nolletn,  potential  subjv.,  280,  4. 

nolo,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV  and  a;   276, 

2,  a;  with  subjv.,  296,  i,  a. 
nomen,  decl.,  35  ;   nomen  est,  constr.,  190, 

I ;  nomen,  as  part  of  Roman  name,  373. 
Nominative,  17 ;  170 ;  used  for  voc,  171, 

i;    nom.  sing,    lacking,  57,  6;    pred. 

nom.,  168. 
Nones,  371,  2,  b). 
non,  in  answers,  162,  5,  b);   with  poten. 

subjv.,  280;  with  deliberative,  277. 
non  dubito  quin,  with  subjv.,  298;    non 

dubito,  w.  inf.,  298,  a ;   b. 
non  modo  for  non  modo  non,  343,  2,  a. 
nonne,  162,  2,  a) ;  300,  i,  b),  N. 
non  quia,  with  ind.,  286,  i,  c ;  with  subjv., 

286,  I,  b. 
non  quin,  with  subjv.,  286,  i,  b. 
non  quod,  with  ind.,.  286,  i,  c ;  with  subjv., 

286,  I,  b. 
nos  =  ego,  242,  3. 
nostrl,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2. 
nostrum,  as  gen.  of  whole,   242,   2 ;    as 

possessive  gen.,  242,  2,  a. 
Nouns,  12  ff. ;  353;  derivation  of ,  147  f. 

in  -is  not  always  t-stems,  38,  i. 

of  agency,  force,  353,  4. 

used  in  plu.  only,  56. 

used  in  sing,  only,  55. 

used  only  in  certain  cases,  57. 

indeclinable,  58. 

with  change  of  meaning  in  plural,  61. 

syntax,  166  f. 

predicate,  agreement  of,  etc.,  167  f . 

appositives,     agreement     of,     etc., 

169  f. 
Noun  and  adj.  forms  of  the  verb,  95,  2. 


novl,  as  pres.,  262,  A. 

no'vus,  compared,  73,  3. 

ns,  quantity  of  vowel  before,  5,  i,  a. 

-ns,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  40,  i,  c). 

nt,  quantity  of  vowel  before,  5,  2,  a. 

nuhes,  decl.,  40,  i,  a. 

nulla  causa  est  cUr,  quin,  295,  7. 

nullus,  decl.,  66;   57,  3;  use,  92,  i. 

num,  162,  2,  b) ;  300,  i,  b). 

Number,  16;  94,  4. 

Numerals,    78   f . ;    peculiarities   in 

of,  81. 
numquis,  decl.,  91,  5. 
nuper,  compared,  77,  i. 
-nus,  sufl&x,  151,  2. 


O. 


6,  vowel,  2,  I ;  as  element  in  diphthong 
flj,  2,  I ;  pron.,  3,  i ;  alternating  w.  u 
in  certain  classes  of  words,  9,  i ;  2 ;  4 ; 
<5-stems,  23;  24;  in  cito,  77,  2,  a;  in 
duo,  80,  2;  inegcJ,  34;  363,  4,  «;  in 
,  modo,  363,  4,  a;  in  compounds  of  pro-, 
363,  4,  c;  in  amo,  led,  etc.,  363,  4,  b. 

0,  pron.,  3,  I ;  for  au,  7,  i,  e;  by  contrac- 
tion, 7,  2 ;  in  abl.  sing,  of  2d  decl.,  23  ; 
in  nom.  sing,  of  3d  decl.,  35 ;  in  Greek 
nouns,  47,  8;  in  adverbs,  77,  2 ;  in  am- 
bo,  80,  2,  a;  in  personal  endings,  96. 

ob,  pr^.  w.  ace,  141 ;  verbs  compounded 
w.  governing  dat.,  187,  III. 

Obqying,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 

Object,  direct,  172  f. ;  two  objects  w.  same 
verb,  177;  178;  indirect,  187  f.;  inf.  as 
obj.,  326;  328;  329;  331. 

Objective  gen.,  200. 

Obligation,  verb  in  expression  of,  304,  3, 
a ;  see  also  Duty. 

Oblique  cases,  71,  2. 

obllvlscor,  constr.,  206,  i,  b;   2. 

octodecim  (for  undevlginti),  81,  2. 

odi,  133. 

oe,  2,  I ;  pron.,  3,  2. 

Old  iorms,  familids,  21,  2,  a;  aulai,  21, 
2,  b;  servos,  aevom,  equos,  etc.,  24; 
med,  ted,  84,  3 ;  sed,  85,  3. 

olle,  archaic  for  ille,  87. 

-olus  (a,  um),  148,  i. 

-om,  later  -um  in  2d  decl.,  23. 

-on,  Greek  nouns,  2d  decl.   in,  27. 

Onomatopoeia,  375,  4. 

opera,  operae,  61. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


279 


Operations  of  nature,  impersonal  verbs 
expressing,  138,  I. 

opinio ne  with  comparatives,  217,  4. 

opis,  57,  6;  opes,  61. 

oportet,  138,  II;  w.  subjv.,  295,  6;  8;  w. 
inf.,  327 ;  330. 

oportuit,  with  pres.  inf.  'ought  to  have,' 
270,  2 ;  with  perf .  inf.,  270,  2,  a. 

oppidum  (Genavam  ad  oppidum),  182, 
2,  a. 

Optative  subjv.,  272;  279;  substantive 
clauses  developed  from,  296. 

optimdtes,  decl.,  40,  1,  d). 

optimus,  comp.,  72. 

opto,  w.  subst.  cl.  developed  from  opta- 
tive, 296,  I. 

optuntus,  spelling,  9,  i. 

opus  est,  w.  abl.,  218,  2;  w.  partic,  218, 
2,  c. 

-or,  nouns  in,  34 ;  36 ;  -or  for  -os,  36 ; 
gender  of  nouns  in,  43,  i ;  exceptions 
in  gender,  44,  2 ;   as  sufl&x,  147,  2, 

Oratio  Obliqua,  313  f. 

Order  of  words,  348  f . 

Ordinals,  78,  i ;   79. 

orior,  conjugation,  123,  VII. 

oriundus,  constr.,  215,  2. 

oro,  with  ace,  178,  i,  a). 

Orpheus,  decl.  47,  6. 

Orthography,  peculiarities,  9, 

ortus,  constr.,  215. 

OS,  decl.,  57,  7. 

OS,  decl.,  42. 

-OS,  later  -us  in  2d  decl.,  23. 

-OS,  later  -or  in  3d  decl.,  36,  i. 

-OS,  Greek  nouns,  2d  decl.  in,  27. 

-osus,  form  of  suffix,  151,  3. 

ovis,  decl.,  38,  i. 

Oxymoron,  375,  2. 

P. 

P,  pron.,  3,3;  by  assimilation,  8,  4 ;   by 

partial  assimilation,  8,  5. 
paenitet,  138,  II ;  with  gen.,  209. 
palam,  as  prep.  w.  abl.,  144,  2. 
Palatal  mutes,  2,  4. 
paluster,  decl.,  68,  i. 
Parasitic  vowels,  7,  3. 
pardtus,  with  infin.,  333. 
Pardon,  verbs  signifying,'  w.  dat.,   187, 

II. 
par  id,  109,  2,  a). 


pars,  partes,  61. 

parte,  abl.  of  place,  228,  i,  b. 

partem,  adverbially  used,  185,  i. 

Participation,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204,  i. 

Participial  stem,  97,  III;  formation,  1x9. 

Participles,  in  -dns  and  -ens,  70,  3 ;  gen. 
plu.  of  in  -um,  70,  7  ;  pres.  act.  partic, 
97,  I,  s;  loi ;  103;  105;  107  ;  no;  113; 
fut.  act.  partic,  97,  III ;  as  one  of  the 
principal  parts  of  the  verb,  p.  55,  foot- 
note; 100;  loi ;  103;  105;  107;  no; 
113;  perf.  pass,  partic,  97,  III;  102; 
104;  106;  108;  in;  113;  gerundive, 
see  Gerundive;  fut.  act.,  peculiar  for- 
mation of,  119,  4;  perf.  pass.,  w.  act.  or 
neuter  meaning,  114,  2;  of  deponents, 
112,  h;  syntax,  336  ff. 

Participles,  fut.  act.,  119,  4;  denoting 
purpose,  SSI,  4- 

perf.  act.,  how  supplied,  356,  2. 

perf.  pass.,  336,  3 ;  as  pres,,  336,  5. 

— —  pres.  partic,  336,  2  ;  with  conative 
force,  336,  2,  a. 

perf.   pass.,   with   active   meaning, 

114,  2;  pred.  use  of  partic,  337,  2; 
participles  equivalent  to  subordinate 
clauses,  337,  2 ;  to  coordinate  clauses, 
337,  5;  w.  opus  est,  218,  2,  c,  with 
noun,  equivalent  to  abstract  noun, 
337.  6;  with  habed,  337,  7. 

with  video,  audio,  facio,  etc.,  337,  3. 

Particles,  139  f . ;  341  f . 

Partitive  apposition,  169,  5. 

Partitive  gen.,  so  called,  201. 

Parts  of  speech,  10. 

parum,  comparison,  77,  i. 

parm,  gen.  of  value,  203,  3. 

parvus,  comparison,  72. 

Passive,  verbs  in,  with  middle  meaning, 
175,  2,  J);  256;  verbs  governing  dat. 
used  in  pass,  only  impersonally,  187, 
II,  b;  constr.  of  passive  verbs  of  say- 
ing, etc.,  332,  and  note;  how  supplied 
when  missing,  356,  i. 

patior,  conj.,  109,  2,  c);  113;  with  inf., 
331,  III. 

Patrial  adjs.,  70,  5,  c). 

Patronymics,  148,  6. 

paulum,  formation,  77,  3. 

paulus,  spelUng,  9,  2. 

pauper,  decl.,  70,  i. 

pedester,  decl.,  68,  i. 

pejor,  quantity  of  first  syllable,  362,  5. 


28o 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


pelagus,  gender  of,  26,  2. 

Penalty,  abl.  of,  208,  2,  b. 

pendtes,  decl.,  40,  i,  d). 

penes,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

Pentameter,  dactylic,  369. 

Penult,  6,  2. 

per,  prep.  w.  ace,  141 ;  with  ace.  of  time 
and  space,  181,  2. 

Perceiving,  verbs  of,  w.  inf.,  331,  I. 

Perfect  active  ptc,  how  supplied  in  Latin, 
356,  2. 

Perfect  pass,  partic,  force  of  w.  depo- 
nent verbs,  112,  b;  dat.  of  agency 
sometimes  used  w.,  189,  2;   opus,  218, 

2,  c. 

Perfect  stem,  97,  II;  formation,  118. 

in  -dvt,   -evi,   -Ivl  contracted,    116, 

I. 

historical  perf.,  262. 

with  force  of  pres.,   262  ;    133,   2 ; 

pres.  perf.  and  hist.  perf.  distinguished, 
237,  I  and  2 ;  gnomic  perf.,  262,  i ; 
perf.  subjv.  as  historical  tense,  268,  6 
and  7,  b;  perf.  inf.  w.  oporiuit,  270,  2 ; 
perf.  prohibitive,  279,  a ;  perf.  potential, 
280,  I  and  2;  perf.  concessive,  278; 
sequence  of  tenses  after  perf.  inf., 
268,  2. 

Periodic  structure,  351,  5. 

Periphrastic  conj.,  115;  269,  3;  in  con- 
ditional sentences  of  the  3d  type,  304, 

3,  b) ;  in  indir.  disc,  322  ;  in  passive, 
337.  8,  b,  I. 

fut.  inf.,  270,  3. 

Persons,  95,  4;  2d  sing,  of  indefinite 
subject,  356,  3. 

Personal  pronouns,  84 ;  242 ;  as  subject, 
omission  of,  166,  2 ;  as  objective  geni- 
tives, 242,  2. 

endings,  96. 

persuaded,  with  dat.,  187,  II,  a;  with 
subjv.,  295,  I. 

Persuading,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 

ph,  2,  3,  c;   2,  4;  3,  3. 

piget,  with  gen.,  209. 

Pity,  verbs  of,  w.  gen.,  209,  i  and  2. 

Place  to  which,  182;  whence,  229;  place 
where,  228. 

placitus,  force,  114,  2. 

Pleasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II,  a;  w. 
ace,  187,  II,  a,  N. 

plebes,  heteroclite,  59,  2,  d). 

plebi,  gen.,  52,  2. 


Plenty  and  Want,  verbs  of,  constr.,  212; 
cf.  218,  8. 

plenus,  w.  gen.,  218,  8,  a. 

Pleonasm,  374,  3, 

pier  ague,  6,  5. 

pluU,  138,  I. 

Pluperfect  tense,  formation,  100 ;  syntax, 
263 ;  265 ;  287,  2 ;  288,  3 ;  with  im- 
perfect meaning,  133,  2. 

Plural,  16;  in  5th  decl.,  52,  4;  of  proper 
names,  55,  4,  a) ;  of  abstract  nouns, 
5,  4,  c);  nouns  used  in,  only,  56; 
with  change  of  meaning,  61 ;  styUstic 
use,  353,  I ;   2. 

Pluralia  tantum,  56;   81,  4,  &). 

pluris,  gen.  of  value,  203,  3;  of  price, 
203,  4. 

plus,  decl.,  70;  70,  4;  =  plus  quam, 
217,  3- 

poema,  decl.,  47,  5. 

Polysyndeton,  341,  4,  b). 

por-,  inseparable  prep.,  159,  3,  e. 

porticus,  gender,  50. 

partus,  decl.,  49,  3. 

posed,  constr.,  178,  i,  a). 

Position  of  clauses,  351,  3. 

of  words,  348;   350;   351. 

Possessive  dat.,  190;  gen.,  198;  con- 
trasted with  dat.  of  poss.,  359,  i. 

Possessive  pronouns,  86 ;  243 ;  =  objec- 
tive gen.,  243,  2;  position  of,  243, 
I,  a. 

Possibility,  verbs  of,  put  in  indie,  in  cond. 
sentences,  304,  3,  a. 

possum,  126;  with  present  infin.,  'I 
might,'  271,  I,  a);  in  cond.  sentences, 
304,  3,  a- 

post,  prep.  w.  ace,  144,  i ;  in  expressions 
of  time,  357,  I. 

Post-positive  words,  343,  i,  c). 

postedquam,  287 ;  separated,  287,  3 ;  with 
imperf.  ind.,  287,  4;  w.  pluperf.  ind., 
287,  3;  with  subjv.,  287,  5. 

posterus,  posterior,  comp.,  73,  2. 

postremus,  use,  241,  2. 

postrldie,  with  gen.,  201,  3,  a. 

postulo,  constr.,^  178,  i,  a. 

Potential   subjv.,  272;   280. 

potior,  with  gen.,  212,  2;  with  abl.,  218, 
I ;  in  gerundive  constr.,  339,  4. 

,  adj.,  73,  I- 

potius,  compared,  77,  i. 

potul,  poteram,  in  apodosis  of  conditional 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


281 


The  references  are  to 

sent,  of  3d  type,  304,  3,  a) ;  in  indir. 
disc,  322,  c. 

potui,  with  pres.  inf.  =  'could  have,' 
270,  2. 

potuerim,  in  dependent  apodosis,  322,  c. 

pdtus,  force,  114,  2. 

prae,  prep.  w.  abi.,  142;  verbs  com- 
pounded with  governing  dat.,  187,  III ; 
short  in  praeaculus,  etc.,  362,  2. 

Praenomen,  373. 

praesens,  125. 

praesum,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 

prdnsus,  force,  114,  2. 

preci,  -em,  -e,  57,  5,  a. 

Predicate,  163. 

gen.,  198,  3;   203,  5- 

Predicate  nouns,  167;  168;  in  ace,  177; 
predicate  nouns  or  adjs.  attracted  to 
dat.,  327,  2,  a;   to  nom.,  328,  2. 

adjectives,  232,  2;   177,  2. 

Prepositions,  assimilation  of,  in  com- 
pounds, 8,  4 ;  9,  2  ;  with  ace,  141 ;  with 
abl.,  142;  as  adverbs,  144;  inseparable 
prepositions,  159,  3,  n.  ;  position,  350, 
7 ;  prepositional  phrases  as  attributive 
modifiers,  353,  5 ;  anastrophe  of,  144, 
3 ;  141,  2 ;  142,  3 ;  usage  with  abl.  of 
Sep.,    214    f. ;     with    abl.    of    source, 

215- 

Present  tense,  259;  gnomic,  259,  i ;  co- 
native,  259,  2  ;  historical,  259,  3  ;  with 
jam  pndem,jam  diu,  etc.,  259,  4;  with 
dum,  'while,'  293, 1;  in  Re praesentdlio, 
318;  pres.  subjv.,  in -im,  127,  2;  pres. 
partic,  see  Participle. 

stem,  97,  1;  formation,  117. 

perf.,  257,  I  and  2. 

Preventing,  verbs  of,  w.  subjv.  clause, 
295,  3- 

Price,  indefinite,  special  words  in  gen., 
203,  4;  also  225,  I. 

,  abl.  of,  225. 

pridie,  with  gen.,  201,  3,  a;  with  ace, 
144,  2. 

Primary  tenses,  see  Principal  tenses. 

primus,  'first  who,'  241,  2. 

prince ps,  decl.,  31. 

Principal  parts,  99;  list,  p.  251. 

tenses,  258  f. 

prior,  compared,  73,  i. 

Prius,  compared,  77,  i. 

priusquam,  with  ind.,  291 ;  with  subjv., 
292;  separated,  291. 


sections  and  paragraphs. 

Privation,  verbs  of,  w.  abl.,  214,  i,  h 
and  c. 

pro,  prep.  w.  abl.,  142. 

procul,  as  prep.  w.  abl.,  144,  2. 

prohibeo,  w.  abl.,  214,  2;  w.  subjv. 
clause,  295,  3. 

Prohibitions,  method  of  expressing,  276. 

Prohibitive  subjv.,  276. 

Prolepsis,  374,  5. 

Pronominal  adjs.,  253. 

Pronouns,  defined,  82 ;  classes,  83 ;  per- 
sonal, 84 ;  reflexive,  85 ;  possessive, 
86 ;  demonstrative,  87 ;  intensive,  88 ; 
relative,  89;  interrogative,  90;  indefi- 
nite, 91 ;  pronominal  adjs.,  92 ;  per- 
sonal, omission  of,  as  subject,  166,  2; 
syntax,  242  f. ;  personal,  242  f. ; 
possess.,  243  f . ;  reflex.,  244  f . ;  recip- 
rocal, 245  f. ;  demonstrative,  246  f . ; 
relative,  250  f. ;  indef.,  252  f. ;  position, 
350,  5;   355- 

Pronunciation,  Roman,  3. 

Prope,  compared,  77,  i. 

Proper  names,  abbreviated,  373. 

nouns,  12,  I. 

propter,  compared,  73,  i ;  with  ace,  141, 
3- 

proprius,  with  dat.,  204,  2,  a ;  with  gen., 
204,  2. 

propter,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

Prosody,  360  f. 

prosper,  decl.,  65,  i. 

prosum,  conj.,  125,  N. 

Protasis,  301 ;  denoting  repeated  action, 
302,  3 ;  without  si,  305 ;  of  indef.  2d 
sing.,  302,  2 ;   see  Conditions. 

Provisos,  310. 

proxime,  -us,  comp.,  73,  i ;  77,  i ;  with 
ace,  141,  3. 

prudens,  decl.,  70. 

-pie,  86,  3. 

pudei,  with  gen.,  209;  w.  inf.,  327,  i. 

puer,  decl.,  23. 

pulcher,  comp.,  71,  3. 

pup  pis,  decl.,  38,  I. 

Purpose,  dat.  of  purpose,  191 ;  with  dat. 
and  gerundive,  191,3;  w.  ad  and  ace, 
192,  2 ;  subjv.  of  purp.,  282,  i ;  w. 
quo,  282,  I,  a;  w.  utne,  282,  i,  b;  with 
non  in  purpose  clause,  282,  i,  c;  neve 
(neu)  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  i,  d; 
neque,  282,  i,  e;  rel.  clauses  of  pur- 
pose, 282,  2 ;  w.  dignus,  indignus,  ido- 


282 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


neus,  282,  3 ;  independent  of  principal 
verb,  282,  4;  inf.,  denoting  purpose, 
362,  N. ;  fut.  partic,  denoting  purpose, 
337,  4;  gerund,  w.  ad,  338,  3;  gerun- 
dive, 339,  2 ;   supine,  340. 

Q. 

-qu-,  pron.,  3,  3 ;  both  letters  consonants, 
74,  a. 

quaero,  w.  indir.  questions,  300,  i,  h),  n. 

quaeso,  137,  2. 

Quality,  gen.,  203;  abl.,  224. 

quam,  in  comparisons,  217,  2;  with  su- 
perl.,  240,  3;  anie  .  .  .  quam,  post  .  .  . 
quam,  prius  .  .  .  quam,  see  antequam, 
postquam,  priusquam;  quam  qui,  283, 
2,  a. 

gwaw  5j,  307,  I. 

quam  ut,  with  subjv.,  284,  4. 

quamquam,  with  ind.,  309,  2 ;  with  subjv., 
309,  6;  =  'and  yet,'  309,  5. 

quamvis,  with  subjv.,  309,  i ;  6 ;  denot- 
ing a  fact,  309,  6. 

quando,  286,  3,  6. 

quantl,  as  gen.  of  price,  203,  4 ;  of  value, 
203,  3- 

Quantity,  5. 

of  syllables,  5,  B;  363  f. 

of  vowels,   5,  ^  ;    362 ;    in   Greek 

words,  365. 

quasi,  307,  i. 

quatio,  conj.,  109,  2,  a). 

-g«€,  accent  of  word  preceding,  6,  3 ;  6, 
5;   341,  I,  b);   2,  a);  4,  c). 

?Meo,  137,  I. 

Questions,  word,  sentence,  162  f.;  rhetor- 
ical, 162,  3 ;  double  (alternative),  162, 
4;  indirect,  300;  questions  in  indir. 
disc,  315. 

qui,  rel.,  89 ;  interr.,  90 ;  indef .,  91 ;  for 
quis  in  indir.  questions,  90,  2,  h ;  with 
ne,  si,  nisi,  num,  91,  5;  in  purpose 
clauses,  282,  2 ;  abl.,  90,  2,  a. 

quia,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  i. 

qulcum,  89. 

qulcumque,  decl.,  91,  8. 

quldam,  decl.,  91 ;  syntax,  252,  3. 

quidem,  post-positive,  347,  i. 

qullibet,  decl.,  91. 

quln,  in  result  clauses,  284,  3 ;  in  sub- 
stantive clauses,  295,  3 ;  298 ;  =  qui 
non  in  clauses  of  characteristic,  283,  4 ; 


with  ind.,  281,  3;    in  indir.  disc,  322 

and  a;  nulla  causa  est  quin,  295,  7. 
quinam,  90,  2,  d. 
Quintllis  (=  Julius),  371. 
qulppe  qui,  in  clauses  of  characteristic, 

283,  3- 
Quirltes,  decl.,  40,  i,  d. 
quis,  indef.,  91 ;  interr.,  90 ;  90,  2,  c ;  252, 

I ;  nescio  quis,  253,  6 ;  with  ne,  si,  nisi, 

num,  91,  5. 
quis  est  qui,  283,  2.  •—      -'' 

quis  =  quibus,  89. 
quisnam,  inflection,  90,  2,  d. 
qidspiam,  inflection^  91. 
quisquam,    inflection,    91 ;      usage,    252, 

4- 
quisque,  inflection,  91 ;  usage,  252,  5. 
quisquis,  inflection,  91,  8. 
qulvis,  inflection,  91. 
quo,  in  purpose  clauses,  282,  i,  a. 
quoad,  with  ind.,  293 ;   with  subjv.,  293, 

III,  2. 
quod,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  i ;    in  sub- 
stantive clauses,  299;    331,  V,  a;    'as 

regards  the  fact,'  299,  2. 
quod    audierim,    283,    5;     quod    sciam, 

283,  5. 
quod  (si),  adverbial  ace,  185,  2. 
quom,  early  form  of  cum,  9,  i . 
quo    minus,    after    verbs    of    hindering, 

295,  3- 
quoniam,  in  causal  clauses,  286,  i. 
quoque,  post-positive,  347. 
-quus,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  24. 


R. 

r,   pron.,   3,   3 ;    ior  s   between   vowels 

('Rhotacism'),  8,  i. 
rapid,  conj.,  109,  2,  a), 
rdstrum,  plurals  of,  60,  2. 
ratus,  'thinking,'  336,  5. 
Reciprocal  pronouns,    85,    2 ;     245 ;    cf . 

253,  3- 
Reduplication  in  perf.,    118,   4,   a);    in 

pres.,  117,  7. 
Reference,  dat.  of,  188. 
refert,  constr.,  210;   211,  4. 
Reflexive  pronouns,  85 ;   244 ;   249,  3. 
rego,  conj.,  105. 
Regular  verbs,  101-113. 
rei,  362,  I,  b). 
reicio,  quantity,  362,  5. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


283 


Relative  adverbs,  in  rel.  clauses  of  purp., 
282,  2. 

clauses,  of  purp.,  282,  2 ;  w.  dignus, 

indignus,  idoneus,  282,  3 ;  of  charac- 
teristic, 283 ;  denoting  cause  or  oppo- 
sition, 283,  3 ;  restrictive,  283,  5 ;  in- 
troduced by  quln,  283,  4 ;  284,  3  ; 
conditional  rel.  clauses,  311;  312,  i 
and  2;  relative  as  subj.  of  inf.,  314, 
4;  rel.  clause  standing  first,  251,  4,  a. 

pronouns,  inflection,  89;    use,  250 

fif. ;  =  Eng.  demonstrative,  251,  6; 
agreement,  250;  not  omitted  as  in 
Eng.,  251,  5 ;  fondness  for  subordinate 
clauses,  355. 

relinquitur  ut,  297,  2. 

reliqul,  use,  253,  5. 

reliquum  est,  with  subjv.,  295,  6. 

remex,  decL,  32. 

Remembering,  verbs  of,  cases  used  w., 
206. 

Reminding,  verbs  of,  const.,  207, 

teminlscor,  constr.,  206,  2. 

Removing,  verbs  of,  w.  abl.,  214,  2. 

reposed,  constr.,  178,  i,  a). 

Repraesentdtio,  318. 

requies,  requiem,  requietem,  59,  2,  c). 

res,  decl.,  51. 

Resisting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 

Restrictive  clauses,  283,  5. 

Result,  ace.  of,  173,  B;  176;  clauses  of, 
284 ;  297 ;  in  dependent  apodosis, 
322,  and  a;  sequence  of  tense  in, 
268,  6. 

reverter,  semi-deponent,  114,  3. 

Rhetorical  questions,  162,  3;  277,  a;  in 
indir.  disc,  315,  2. 

Rhotacism,  8,  i;   36,  i. 

Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  15, 

rogdtu,  abl.  of  cause,  219,  2. 

rogo,  constr.,  178,  i,  c) ;   178,  i 

Roman  pronunciation,  3. 

Root,  17,  3,  footnote  i. 

-rs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  40,  1,  c). 

rure,  abl.,  place  from  which,  229,  i,  h. 

rurl,  abl.,  place  in  which,  228,  i,  c. 

rus,  57,  7 ;  ace,  limit  of  motion,  182,  i,  b. 


A,  I. 


a). 


s,   pron.,   3,   3; 
vowels,   8,    I 

8.  2. 


changed  to  r  between 
s,   ss,   from  dt,   tt,   ts, 


-s,   decl.  of  monosyllables  in,   preceded 

by  one  or  more  consonants,  40,  i  h). 
5-stems,  36. 

sacer,  decl.,  65 ;   comparison,  73,  3. 
saepe,  compared,  77,  i. 
SO'I,  SI,  T,  sales,  61. 
salubris,  decl.,  68,  3. 
salutdris,  comp.,  73,  4. 
salve,  salvete,  137,  4. 
Samnites,  decl.,  40,  i,  i). 
sdne,  in  answers,  162,  5. 
sapid,  conj.,  109,  2,  a), 
satur,  decl.,  65,  2. 
Saying,  verbs  of,  w.  inf.  of  ind.  disc, 

331,  I- 

scio,  quod  sciam,  283,  5. 

-5co-class  of  verbs,  117,  6;   155. 

scrlbere  ad  aliquem,  358,  2. 

se,  use,  244. 

se-,  compounds  of,  159,  3,  e,. 

Second  conj.,  103 ;  decl.,  23 ;  peculiarities 
25 ;  second  person  indefinite,  280,  3 ; 
356,  3;  302,  2. 

Secondary  tenses,  see  Historical  tenses. 

secundum,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

securis,  decl.,  38,  i. 

secus,  compared,  77,  i. 

secus  (virile  secus),  185,  i ;   58. 

secutus,  'following,'  336,  5. 

sed,  se,  85,  3. 

sed-,  compounds  of,  159,  3,  e. 

sed,  343,  I,  a). 

sedile,  decl.,  39. 

sementis,  decl.,  38,  i. 

Semi-deponent  verbs,  114. 

Semivowels,  2,  8. 

senex,  decl.,  42 ;   compared,  73,  4. 

Sentences,  classification,  160  f.;  simple 
and  compound,  164;  sentence-struc- 
ture, 351;   sentence  questions,  162,  2. 

sententid,  abl.  of  accordance,  220,  3. 

Separation,  dat.  of,  188,  2,  d) ;  gen.,  212, 
3;  abl.,  214. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  267 ;   268. 

sequester,  decl.,  68,  i. 

sequitur  ut,  297,  2. 

sequor,  conj.,  113. 

Serving,  verbs  of,  w,  dat.,  187,  II. 

servos,  decl.,  24. 

sese,  decl.,  85. 

Sextllis  (  =  Augustus),  371. 

Sharing,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  204,  i. 

Short  syllables,  5,  jB,  2;  vowels,  5,  .4,  2. 


284 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


Showing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  177. 

si,  with  indir.  questions,  300,  3 ;  in  pro- 
tasis, 301 ;  omitted,  305. 

signifer,  decl.,  23,  2. 

silentio,  abl.  of  manner,  220,  2. 

Silvester,  decl.,  68,  3. 

similis,  with  dat.,  204,  3 ;  with  gen.,  204, 
3;  comp.,  71,  4. 

si  minus,  use,  306,  2. 

Simple  sentences,  164. 

simul,  as  prep.,  w.  abl.,  144,  2. 

simul  ac,  w.  ind.,  287,  i ;   2. 

si  non,  usage,  306,  i  and  2. 

sin,  usage,  306,  3. 

sin  minus,  306,  2,  a. 

Singular,  second  person  indefinite,  280, 
3;  356,  3;  302,  2. 

sino,  with  inf.,  331,  III. 

sitis,  decl.,  38,  i. 

Smelling,  verbs  of,  constr.,  176,  5. 

Soft  consonants,  2,  3,  &),  footnote  2. 

-50,  verbs  in,  155,  2. 

.socer,  decl.,  23,  2. 

socium,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  c). 

sol,  decl.,  57,  7. 

5o/go,  semi-dep.,  114,  i. 

solitus,  used  as  present  partic,  336,  5. 

solus,  66;  solus  est  qui  with  subjv.,  283, 
2. 

Sonant  consonants,  2,  3,  ft),  footnote  2. 

Soracte,  decl.,  39,  2. 

Sounds,  classification,  2. 

of  the  letters,  3. 

Source,  abl.,  215. 

Space,  extent  of,  181. 

Sparing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 

Specification,  abl.  of,  226. 

spei,  quantity,  362,  i,  b. 

Spelling,  see  Orthography. 

Spirants,  2,  7. 

Spondaic  verses,  368,  2. 

Spondee,  368,  i. 

sponte  sua,  abl.  accordance,  220,  3. 

spontis,  -e,  defective,  57,  2,  h. 

Statutes,  fut.  imperative  used  in,  281,  i,  h. 

Stem,  17,  3. 

,  verb,  97;  117, 

Structure  of  sentences,  see  Sentences. 

Style,  hints  on,  352  f. 

su  =  sv,  3,  3. 

sub,  prep,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  143 ;  com- 
pounds of,  w.  dat.,  187,  III. 

Subject,  163;  nom.,  166;  ace,  184;  sub- 


ject ace.  of  inf.,  184;  omitted,  314,  5; 
clauses  as  subject,  294 ;  295,  6 ;  inf.  as 
subj.,  327;  330. 

Subjective  gen.,  199. 

Subjunctive,  tenses  in,  94,  3. 

in  independent  sentences,  272  ;    by 

attraction,  324;  tenses  of,  266  f. ; 
method  of  expressing  future  time  in, 
269;  volitive  (hortatory,  jussive, 
prohibitive,  deUberative,  concessive), 
273  f. ;  optative  (wishes),  279;  poten- 
tial, 280;  in  clauses  of  purpose,  282; 
of  characteristic,  283;  of  result,  284; 
of  cause,  286;  temporal  clauses  with 
postguam,  postedguam,  287,  5 ;  tempo- 
ral clauses  with  cum,  288-290;  with 
antequam  and  priusguam,  292;  with 
dum,  donee,  guoad,  293,  III,  2 ;  sub- 
stantive clauses,  294  f. ;  indir.  ques- 
tions, 300;  in  apodosis  of  first  type 
conditions,  302,  4 ;  jussive  subjunctive 
as  protasis  of  condition,  305,  2 ;  with 
velut,  tamguam,  etc.,  307 ;  with  necesse 
est,  oportet,  etc.,  295,  6  and  8;  with 
licet,  309,  4 ;  with  guamvis,  guamguam, 
etsi,  cum,  'although,'  390  f. 

subldtus,  p.  99,  footnote. 

subm-  =  summ-,  9,  2. 

Subordinate  clauses,  165. 

Substantive  clauses,  294  f. ;  developed 
from  the  voUtive,  295,  1-8 ;  developed 
from  the  optative,  296 ;  with  non  dubito, 
298 ;  indir.  questions,  300 ;  without  ut, 
295,  8 ;  of  result,  297 ;  introduced  by 
quod,  299. 

use  of  adjs.,  236-238. 

subter,  prep.  w.  ace.,  143,  i. 

Suffixes,  17,  3,  footnote  i;   147  f. 

sui,  85 ;  as  objective  gen,,  244,  2 ;  =  pos- 
sessive gen.,  244,  2. 

sum,  conj.,  100;  omitted  when  auxiliary, 
166,  3. 

summus,  'top  of,'  241,  i. 

sunt  qui,  with  subjv.,  283,  2. 

suopte,  sudpte,  86,  3. 

supellex,  decl.,  42,  2. 

super,  prep.  w.  ace.,  143,  i. 

Superlative  degree;  of  adjs.,  71.  i ;  2; 
in  -rimus,  91,  3;  in  -limus,  71,  4; 
irregular  superl.,  72;  73;  lacking,  73, 
4 ;  formed  w.  maxime,  74 ;  of  adverbs, 
76,  2 ;  irregular,  77,1;  force  of,  240,  2. 

superus,  compared,  73,  2. 


Supine,  340. 

supra,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

-sura,  suffix,  147,  3,  a. 

Surd  consonants,  2,  3,  a),  footnote  i. 

sus,  decl.,  41. 

sustuli,  p.  99,  footnote. 

suus,  decl.,  86,  i ;  244 ;  suus  quisque,  244 

4,  a. 
Syllaba  anceps,  366,  10. 
Syllables,  division,  4;  quantity  of,  5,  B. 
Synapheia,  367,  6. 
Synaeresis,  367,  i. 
Synchysis,  350,  11,  d). 
Syncope,  7,  4 ;  367,  8. 
Synecdochical  ace,  180. 
Synizesis,  367,  i. 
Syntax,  160  f. 
Systole,  367,  3. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 

Tetrameter  verses,  366, 


285 


t,  pron.,  3,  3 ;  th, 
8,  2;  dropped, 


2,  3 
8,3 


c;  3,  3;  changes, 


taedet,  138,  II ;  w.  gen.,  209. 

Taking  away,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  i38,  2,  d. 

talentum,  gen.  plu.,  25,  6,  a). 

tamen,  343,  i,  /. 

tametsl,  309,  2. 

tamquam,  tamquam  si,  w.  subjv..  307. 

tanton,  6,  4. 

-tas,  149;   gen.  -talis,  decl.  of  nouns  in. 

40,  I,  e). 
Tasting,  verbs  of,  constr.,  176,  5. 
Teaching,  verbs  of,  constr.,  178,  i,  h. 
ted  =  te,  84,  3. 
Temporal  clauses,  w.  postquam,  ut,  ubi, 

simul  ac,  287;   w.  cum,  288;    289;   w. 

antequam  and  priusquam,   291;    292; 

with  dum,  donee,  quoad,  293. 
temporis  {id  temporis),  185,  21 
Tendency,  dat.  of,  191. 
tener,  decl.,  64. 
Tenses,  94,  3;    257  ff. ;    of  inf.,  270;    of 

inf.  in  indir.  disc,  317;   of  participles, 

336;  of  subjv.,  266 ;  sequence  of,  266- 

268;  in  indir.  disc,  317;   318. 
Tenues  (consonants),  2,  3,  a),  footnote  i. 
tenus,  position,  142,  3. 
Terminations,  17,  3. 
terni,  how  used,  81,  4,  b. 
-ternus,  154. 
terra  marique,  228,  i,  c. 
terr ester,  68,  3. 


Thematic  verbs,  101-113. 

vowels,  117,  footnote. 

Thesis,  366,  6. 

Third  conj.,  105;  109  f. ;  decl.,  28  f. ; 
gender  in,  43  f . 

Threatening,  verbs  of,  187,  II. 

-tint,  adverbs  in,  157,  2. 

Time,  at  which,  230;  during  which,  181 ; 
231,  i;  within  which,  231. 

timed  ne  and  ut,  296,  2. 

-tinus,  suffix,  154. 

-tid,  suffix,  147,  3. 

Tmesis,  367,  7. 

-to  as  suffix  of  verbs,  155,  2. 

-tor,  use  of  nouns  in,  353,  4. 

totus,  66;  preposition  absent  w.,  in  ex- 
pression of  place  relations,  228,  i,  b). 

Towns,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  2  ;  names 
of,  denoting  limit  of  motion,  182,  i,  a; 
denoting  place  where,  228,  i,  a;  place 
from  which,  229,  i,  a;  appositives  of 
town  names,  169,  4;   229,  2. 

trdditur,  trdditum  est,  w.  inf.,  332,  N. 

trans,  prep.  w.  ace,  141 ;  constr.  of  verbs 
compounded  with,  179. 

Transitive  verbs,  174. 

Trees,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  2. 

tres,  decl.,  80,  3. 

Tribrach,  370,  2. 

tribus,  decl.,  49,  3 ;  gender,  50. 

Trimeter  verses,  366,  11. 

trim,  use,  81,  4,  b). 

triumvir,  gen.  plu.  of,  25,  6,  b). 

-trlx,  suffix,  147,  I. 

Trochee,  366,  2. 

-Irum,  suffix,  147,  4. 

Trusting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  187,  II. 

tu,  decl.,  84. 

-tildd,  suffix,  149. 

tui,  as  objective  gen.,  242,  2, 

-tura,  suffix,  147,  3,  a). 

tus,  decl.,  57,  7. 

-tus,  suffix,  147,  3;   151,  4. 

tussis,  decl.,  38. 

tute,  tutemet,  tutimet,  84,  2. 

Two  accusatives,  177;   178. 

Two  datives,  191,  2. 


U. 


u,  instead  of  i  in  some  words, 
stead  of  o,  9,  i ;   9,  4. 


9,  i;   in- 


286 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


«,  becomes  v,  367,  4. 

^-sterns,  48. 

ii-s terns,  41, 

-u,  dat.  sing.,  4th  decl.,  49,  2, 

uber,  decl.,  70,  i. 

uhi,  with  ind.,  287,  i ;  2 ;  with  gen.,  201, 
3- 

-ubus,  dat.,  plu.,  4th  decl.,  49,  3. 

«//«.y,  decl.,  66. 

ulterior,  compared,  73,  i. 

ultimus,  use,  241,  2. 

M//m,  prep.  w.  ace,  141. 

-ulus,  diminutive  ending,  150,  2 ;  (a, 
«w),  148,  I. 

-urrt,  ist  decl.,  gen.  plu.  in,  21,  2,  d) ;  2d 
decl.,  25,  6;  for -ium,  70,  7. 

-undus,  -undl,  in  gerund  and  gerundive, 
116,  2. 

w««5,  decl.,  66 ;  92,  i ;  unus  est  qui,  with 
siibjv.,  283,  2. 

-«m,  ending  of  desiderative  verbs,  155, 
3- 

-urus,  ending  of  fut.  act.  partic,  10 1 ; 
103  £F. ;  -urus  fuisse  yi  apodosis  of 
conditional  sentences  contrary-to-fact, 
in  indir.  disc,  321,  2;  -urus  Juerim  in 
indir.  questions  serving  as  apodoses, 
322,  b. 

-us,  neuter  nouns  of  2d  decl.  in,  26,  2; 
nom.  in  3d  decl.,  in  -us,  36;  gender  of 
nouns  in  -us  of  3d  dec!.,  43,  3 ;  excep- 
tions in  gender,  46,  4. 

-us,  nouns  of  3d  decl.  in,  43,  2. 

usque  ad,  w.  ace,  141,  i. 

ilsus  est,  with  abl.,  218,  2. 

ut,  temporal,  287,  i ;  2 ;  ut,  utl,  in  pur- 
pose dauses,  282 ;  in  result  clauses, 
284 ;  in  substantive  clauses,  295  f . ; 
substantive  clauses  without,  295,  8; 
with  verbs  of  fearing,  296,  2. 

ut  ne  =  ne,  282,  i,  b]   295,  i,  4,  5. 

ut  non  instead  oi  ne,  282,  i,  c;  in  clauses 
of  result,  284,  297. 

ut  qui,  introducing  clauses  of  character- 
istic, 283,  3. 

ut  si,  w.  subjv.,  307,  I. 

uter,  decl.,  66;  92,  i. 

titer,  decl.,  40,  i,  d). 

utercumque,  decl,,  92,  2. 

uterlibet,  decl.,  92,  2. 

uterque,  decl.,  92,  2 ;   use,  355,  2. 

utervis,  decl.,  92,  2. 

iltUius  est  =  Eng.  potential,  271,  i,  b). 


utinam,  with  optative  subjv.,  279,  i  and  2. 

Utor,  with  abl.,  218,  i ;  in  gerundive 
constr.,  339,  4. 

utpote  qui,  introducing  clauses  of  char- 
acteristic, 283,  3. 

utrdque,  6,  5. 

utrum  .  .  .  an,  162,  4;  300,  4. 


V. 

V,  I,  I ;  pron.,  3,  3 ;  developing  from  «, 
367,  4- 

V,  becomes  u,  367,  5. 

valde,  by  syncope,  for  vaiide,  7,  4. 

m/e,  363,  2,  b). 

Value,  indefinite,  in  gen.,  203,  3. 

vannus,  gender  of,  26,  i,  b). 

Variations  in  speUing,  9, 

vas,  decl.,  59,  i. 

-"ve,  6,  3;  342,  i,b). 

vel,  342,  I,  6);  with  superl.,  240,  3. 

velim,  potential  subjv.,  280,  2,  a. 

vellem,  potential  subjv.,  280,  4. 

velut,  velut  si,  w.  subjv.,  307,  i. 

venter,  decl.,  40,  1,  d). 

Verba  sentiendi  et  dccldrandi,  w.  inf.  of 
indir.  disc,  331,  I;  passive  use  of 
these,  332. 

Verbal  ad js.,' 1 50,  1-4. 

Verbs,  94  f. ;  personal  endings,  96;  de- 
ponent, 1 1-2 ;  archaic  and  poetic  forms, 
116,  4;  irregular,  124;  defective,  133; 
impersonal,  138;  with  substantive 
clauses  of  result,  297,  2 ;  omission  of, 
166,  3;  transitive,  174;  used  abso- 
lutely, 174,  a;  passives  used  as  inid- 
dles,  175,  2,  d);  of  smelUng  and 
tasting,  constr.,  176,  5;  not  used  in 
passive,  177,  3,  a;  intransitives  im- 
personal in  passive,  187,  II,  b;  256,  3 ; 
compounded  with  preps.,  constr.,  187, 
III;  of  judicial  action,  constr.,  208; 
derivation  of,  155  f. ;  inceptive  or 
inchoative,  155,  i ;  frequentative  or 
intensive,  155,  2;  desiderative,  15 5,. 3; 
denominative,  156;  agreement  of, 
254  f. 

Verb  stems,  97;  formation  of,  117  f. 

vereor,  conj.,  113;  with  subst.  clause  in 
subjv.,  296,  2. 

Vergilius,  gen.  of,  25,  i. 

veritus,  with  present  force,   336,  5. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 

The  references  are  to  sections  and  paragraphs. 


287 


vero,  343,  I,  g) ;  in  answers,  162,  5. 

Verse,  366,  3. 

Verse-structure,  366  f. 

Versification,  361. 

versus,  prep.  w.  ace,    141 ;    follows  its 

case,  141,  2. 
verum,  343,  i,  b). 
vescor,  with  abl.,  218,  i. 
vesper,  decl.,  ^3,  2. 
vesperi,  locative,  232,  2. 
vestri,  as  obj.  gen.,  242,  2. 
vestrum,   as  gen.  of  whole,    242,   2 ;    as 

possessive  gen.,  242,  2,  a. 
veto,  with  inf.,  331,  II. 
vetus,  decl.,  70;  compared,  73,  3. 
vi,  220,  2. 
vicem,  used  adverbially,    185,    i ;    vicis, 

i^ce,  57,  5,  b. 
victor,  decl.,  34. 

video,  with  pres.  partic,  337,  3. 
vigil,  decl.,  34. 
violenter,  formation,  77,  4,  a. 
w>,  decl.,  23. 
,   gen.   plu.   of   nouns   compounded 

with,  25,  6,  b). 
virile  secus,  constr.,  185,  i. 
virus,  gender  of,  26,  2. 
vis,  decl.,  41. 

viscera,  used  in  plu.  only,  56,  3. 
Vocative    case,    17;     19,    i;     of    Greek 

proper  names  in  -as,  47,  4;  of  adjs.  in 

-ius,  63,  I ;    171 ;   in  -i  for  -ie,  25,  i ; 

position  of,  350,  3. 
Voiced  sounds,  2,  3,  a. 
Voiced  consonants,  2,  3,  b). 
Voiceless  consonants,  2,  3,  a. 
Voices,  94;   256;  middle  voice,  256,  i. 
Volitive  subjunctive,  272  f. 
volnus,  spelling,  9,  i. 
void,  130;  with  inf.,  331,  IV  and  a;   270, 

2,  a;  with  subjv.,  296,  i,  a. 
volt,  spelling,  9,  i. 
voltus,  spelling,  8,  i. 
voliicer,  decl.,  68,  i. 
voluntdte,  220,  2. 


comparison    of     adjs.     in,     71, 


-volus, 
5- 

Vowels,  2,  I ;  sounds  of  the,  3,  i ;  quan- 
tity of,  5,  A  ;  contraction  of,  7,  2 ;  para- 
sitic, 7,  3. 

Vowel  changes,  7. 

vulgus,  gender  of,  26,  2. 

-vum,  -vus,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  24. 

W. 

Want,  verbs  and  adjs.  of,  w.  abl.,  214,  i, 
c;  d. 

Way  by  which,  abl.  of,  218,  9. 

We,  editorial,  242,  3. 

Whole,  gen.  of,  201. 

Wills,  use  of  fut.  imperative  in,  281, 
i,b. 

Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  15,  i. 

Wish,  clauses  with  dum,  etc.,  expressing 
a,  310. 

Wishes,  subjunctive  in,  279;  see  Opta- 
tive subjunctive. 

Wishing,  verbs  of,  with  subst.  clause, 
296,  I ;  with  obj.  inf.,  331,  IV. 

Word-formation,  146  f. 

Word-order,  348  f . 

Word  questions,  162,  i. 

X. 

X,  2,  g;  =  cs  and  gs,  32. 

-X,  decl.  of  monosyllables  in,  preceded  by 
one  or  more  cons.,  40,  i,  b);  gender  of 
nouns  in  -x  of  3d  decl.,  43,  2 ;  excepy- 
tions,  45,  4. 

Y. 

y.  i>  I- 

Yes,  how  expressed,  162,  5. 

'You,'  indefinite,  356,  3 ;   280,  3 ;  302,  2. 


Z. 


z,  I,  I ;  2,  9. 
Zeugma,  374,  2,  a). 


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